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ftSB  1  3  t005 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


WORKS  BY  MR.  EDWARD  BROWN,  F.L.S. 


Poultry    Husbandry.       Fully    illustrated,    Ss.    Gd.    net, 
post  free  8s.  lod.     (London:   Edward  Arnold.) 

Races  of  Domestic  Poultry.     Fully  illustrated,  6s.  net. 
post  free  6s.  4d.     (London  :  Edward  Arnold.) 


Report  on   the  Poultry  Industry  in   America,     is., 
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Sweden,     is.,  post  free  is.  2d. 

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post  free  is.  2d. 

Report  on  the   Poultry  Industry  in  Germany,     is., 
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Report  on   the   Poultry    Industry   in   Holland,     is., 
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Of  all  Booksellers. 


POULTRY    HUSBANDRY 


BY 

EDWARD    BROWN,  F.L.S. 

LATE   HON.    SEC.    NATIONAL   TOULTRV   ORGANIZATION   SOCIETY  ;    PRESIDENT 

INTERNATIONAL   ASSOCIATION   OF    POULTRY   INSTRUCTORS 

AND   INVESTIGATORS  ; 

AUTHOR   OF    "industrial   POULTRY    KEEPING,"    "RACES    OF    DOMESTIC    POULTRY,"    "POULTRY 

FATTENING,"   REPORTS   ON    THE    POULTRY   INDUSTRY   IN   AMERICA,    DENMARK   AND 

SWF.DEN,    BELGIUM,    GERMANY,    AND    HOLLAND,    ETC. 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

LONGMANS,     GREEN     &     CO. 

LONDON:  EDWARD  ARNOLD 

iqi5 

[A  U  n^hts  reserved] 


Printed  in  England 


PREFACE 

In  1891  the  first  edition  of  "  Poultry-Keeping  as  an  Indusliy 
for  Farmers  and  Cottagers  "  was  issued.  The  time  was  propitioMS 
in  that  we  were  on  the  eve  of  great  developments,  equally  as  t(i 
advance  in  consumption  of  eggs  and  poultry  and  efforts  for 
increase  of  production  at  home  and  abroad.  Until  that  time, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  lectures  which  I  had  given  at  what 
is  now  the  Munster  Institute,  Cork,  there  was  no  Agricultural 
CoUege  or  educational  authority  in  the  United  Kingdom  which 
devoted  any  attention  to  Poultry  as  a  practical  subject.  In 
the  year  named  a  large  sum  of  money  was  granted  by  Parlia- 
ment to  County  Councils,  upon  whom  was  placed  the  responsi- 
bility for  technical  instruction.  This  led  to  my  devoting  several 
years  to  direct  teaching  in  association  with  County  Councils, 
and  to  much  of  my  later  work. 

When  the  grant  was  made,  our  imports  of  eggs  and  poultry 
were  in  value  less  than  £4,000,000  per  annum  ;  in  1913  they 
amounted  to  £10,500,000.  In  1891  Irish  production  did  not 
exceed  £2,000,000;  in  1913  it  was  £5,000,000.  In  the  former 
year  British  production  was  certainly  not  in  value  more  than 
£5,000,000;  now  it  exceeds  £9,000,000.  Thus,  in  the  interval 
production  in  the  United  Kindgom  has  increased  by  100  per 
cent.,  imports  by  162 .\  per  cent.,  and  consumption  by  122  per 
cent. 

That,  however,  is  the  least  part  of  the  change  which  has  taken 
place.  The  whole  aspect  of  affairs  has  been  altered.  Instead 
of  prejudice  and  bitter  antagonism,  in  the  main  there  is  sym- 
pathy and  recognition.  The  most  difficult  task  at  the  time 
named  was  to  combat  the  spirit  of  disbelief  in  Poultry  Husbandry 
as  a  profitable  branch  of  live  .stock  breeding.  To  a  large  extent 
even  that  has  been  ov^ercome.  Our  greatest  immeaiate  danger 
is  due  to  those  whoso  imagination  is  vastly  in  excess  of  their 
experience.     As  to  the  extent  of  operations  and  methods  adopted. 


38188 


vi  PREFACE 

■what  has  been  accomphshed  in  a  Httle  more  than  two  decades 
forms  one  of  the  most  remarkable  chapters  in  the  records  of 
progress.  1  hat  is  true  in  other  countries  equally  with  our  own. 
Ihe  time  has  come,  therefore,  to  deal  with  the  subject  on 
broader  lines.  The  former  work  has  served  its  purpose.  To 
merely  revnse  it  was  not  enough.  When  that  was  written  I  had 
studied  the  methods  adopted  in  France,  Belgium,  and  Denmark 
as  well  as  at  home.  Since  then  I  have  visited  nearly  every 
European  country,  and  also  Canada  and  the  United  States,  in 
pursuit  of  knowledge,  meeting  the  men  who,  as  educators  or 
practicians  or  scientists,  are  contributing  their  share  to  a  wider 
knowledge  and  an  enlarged  experience  in  what  is  now  one  of  the 
most  important  of  our  rural  industries.  It  has  been  my  desire 
to  embody  the  result  of  these  observations  in  the  following  pages . 
That  the  future  will  assuredly  see  even  greater  changes  than 
have  3'et  been  made  cannot  be  questioned.  All  now  attempted 
is  to  record  the  present  position,  so  far  as  it  is  known,  and  to 
suggest  the  lines  of  future  development.    This  I  have  endeavoured 

to  do. 

EDWARD  BROWN. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PACK 

I.  THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY 1 

Increase  of  industry — Poultry  -  keeping — Recent  growth — Great 
Britain — Ireland — ■Production  in  United  Kingdom — Capacity  for 
production- — ^Consumption  of  eggs  and  poultry — •Advancing  prices — 
Effect  of  high  prices. 

II.  THE  LINES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  -  -  -  -       13 

Extensive  or  intensive — Farmers  and  jDoultry  husbandry — Relation- 
ship to  cultivation — Arable  versus  pasture  land — ^The  Colony  system 
— Fox  preservation — Poultry  in  orchards — Destruction  of  parasites 
-— Manurial  influence  of  fowls — -Running  fowls — Utilization  of  waste 
lands — Specialized  poultry  industries — District  poultry  industries — 
Poultiy  farming — 'The  place  of  poultry  farms — -Breeding  centres — - 
Day-old  chick  trade — Intensified  methods — Effect  on  the  stock — 
Bantams — Food  cost  and  j^riccs — Co-operation — -Insti'uction  and 
Investigation. 

III.  THE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 36 

Pure  breeds  the  basis — Economic  qualities— Egg  qualities — Table 
qualities — Maternal  proclivities — Consumption  of  food — Classifica- 
tion of  poultry — Egg-producing  races  of  fowls — -General  j^urpose  races 
of  fowls — Ornamental  races  of  fowls — Egg-producing  races  of  ducks 
• — Flesh-producing  races  of  ducks — -Races  of  geese — -Races  of  turkeys 


IV.  SELECTION  AND  BREEDING 50 

L'niformity  of  breeds — -Choice  of  individuals — Breed  versus  strain — 
Limitations  of  strain— Stmcture  of  body — Lining  a  fowl — Size  of 
body  in  relation  to  production — Size  of  body  in  relation  to  size 
of  egg — Causes  of  degeneracy — Line  breeding — -Inbreeding — Con- 
stitutional vigour — Simplicity  in  selection — -Parental  influence — ■ 
Mendelism — xA.ge  of  breeding  stock — Selecting  the  breeders — Func- 
tional variations. 

\ .  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOWL 70 

Skeleton — Sternum — -Scapula  and  furcula — Wings — -Legs  and  feet 
— Head — Digestive  organs — Crop — Gizzard — Intestines — Vascular 
system — -Respiratory  organs — Ovai  ies  —  Senses. 


viii  CONTENTS 

"IIAPTER  PAliE 

VI.  CLIMATE   AND   SOIL    IN    RELATION   TO    POULTRY    HUS- 

BANDRY  7!'. 

Natural  advantages — Climatic  influences — Moisture  in  atmosphere- 
Variations  of  climate — Soil — Effect  of  soil  on  growth — Summary- 
Soils  in  relation  to  breeds — CI  ange  of  condition  and  environment — 
Application  in  practice — North  versus  south. 

VII.  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY  ON  FARMS    -  -  -  -      88 
Farms     the     basis — Eggs     or    flesh — "  Pin     money  " — Homestead 
methods — Distributive  methods — Portable  houses — Enclosed  yards 

— Class  of  stock — Risks  of  loss — Hatching  and  roaring — 'Waterfowl 
and  turkeys — A  Cambridgeshire  example — A  Belgian  method — 
Rough  grazings — Labour. 

VIII.  POULTRY  ON  SMALL  HOLDINGS  AND  ALLOTMENTS       -       99 

Small  holdings— Stock  and  equi])m(nt — The  colony  system — A 
Hertfordshire  faim — Rhode  Island,  U.S.A. — South  Shore,  Mass., 
U.S.A. — Chicken  production— Sale  of  duck  eggs — Allotments — 
Division  of  the  land — Poultry  allotments — Burnley  and  its  allot- 
ments— Renaix,  Belgium. 

IX.  BREEDING  PLANTS  AND  FARMS  -  -  -  -  112 
Not  poultry  farms — Influence  of  breeding  farms — Mainly  supple- 
mental— Small  and  large  plants — Equipment — Exhibiting — Class  of 
stock — Sale  of  stock  birds — Values — Cost  of  production — Prices  of 
stock  birds — Period  of  demand — Export  trade — Eggs  for  hatching — 
Production  of  eggs  for  hatching — Selection  and  packing — Day-old 
chicks — Plant  for  day-old  chicks — Cost  of  producing  day-old  chicks 

• — Chick  boxes — Weaned  chickens — Pupils. 

X.  INTENSIVE  AND  SEMI-INTENSIVE  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY     132 

Meaning  of  terms—"  Bird-cage  "  methods— Intensive  houses — The 
commercial  aspect — Largo  intensive  houses — Intensive  and  semi- 
intensive— Unit  of  flocks — The  Rancocas  plant — A  Hertfordshire 
plant — Intensive  plants — Effects  of  system — Constitutional  vigour — 
Rearing  of  chickens — The  application. 

_XJ.  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING     -  -  -     L50 

Conditional  influences — Are  poultry  houses  necessary  ? — Aspect  and 
location  —  General  principles  —  Materials  —  Roofing — Ventilation — 
Methods  of  ventilation— Light — Heating — Floors — Perches — Nests 
— Draining — Original  fonns  of  poultry  houses — Size  of  houses — ■ 
Shape  of  houses — Portable  poultry  houses — Colony  houses — Scratch- 
ing-shed  houses- — ^The  litter — Ojien  front  houses — Range  houses — ■ 
Small  poultry  houses — Shelter  sheds- — ^Fenees  and  yards — -Hj'gicnic 
conditions. 

Xir.  GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  BREEDING  STOCK    -  -     183 

Where  management  tells — Causes  of  infertility — Weak  gei-ms — 
Number  of  hens  to  male — Nests- — Sex  influences — Mental  impressions 
— Duration  of  male  influence. 


CONTEXTS  !x 

CHAPTER  lAOE 

XIII.  THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  -  -  -  -  -     1S8 
Natural  food — Liberty  the  ideal — 'Artificial  foods — Food  constituents 

— Available  artificial  foods — Influence  of  cooking — Requirements 
of  the  bird  body  — •  Food  digestion  and  assimilation  — ■  Hard  food 
and  wet  and  diy  soft  mashes — Methods  of  feeding — 'Food  tables 
—Adjuncts  to  feeding — Use  of  condiments — Purchase  of  foods — • 
Chicken  feeding. 

XIV.  FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN  -  -  -     202 
What  an  egg  is — How  an  egg  is  formed — Process  of  jjroduction — 
Formation  of  the  chicken — -Fertile  and  infertile  eggS' — Position  of 

the  germ  vesicle — -Influence  of  the  yolk — First  day  of  development — 
Second  day— Third  day — -Fourth  day^ — Fifth  and  later  days — - 
Process  of  hatching. 

XV.  HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL       -  -  -     222 

Elements  in  hatching — Places  for  sitting— Hatching  rooms — -Outside 
feeding  cages — Making  the  nests — Cooling  and  feeding — -Hatching  by 
turkeys — Choice  of  eggs  for  hatching — Register  of  hatching — 
Testing  the  eggs — -Incubators  and  their  use — Ai'e  incubators  prac- 
tical ? — Use  of  incubators— Limitations  of  artificial  methods — -Hen 
oil — Incubator  houses—Types  of  machines — Tank  incubators — -Hot- 
air  incubators — Mammoth  incubators — Management  of  incubators 
— Moisture — -General  hints. 

XVL   REARING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL        -  -  -    253 

Places  to  rear — Chicken  houses  or  sheds — Coops  and  cooping^ 
Fresh  gromid — -Brooders — Systems  of  brooding — -Individual  brooders 
— -Colony  brooders — -Brooder  houses — -Methods  of  heating — General 
hints — -The  early  days — -Feeding  chickens— The  orphans— Division 
of  the  sexes — -Hardening  the  chickens. 

XVII.  PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY  -  -  -    271 

Favourable  conditions — The  fattening  industry — A  method  of  ripen- 
ing— -Fattening — Cages — -The  sheds — Cramming — Food  for  fattening 
— Use  of  milk — Feeding — Feathers  and  manure — Killing — Dislo- 
cation of  the  neck — Shaping — Stubbing— Packing — Caponizing — 
Dressing  and  trussing — Milk  chickens  or  Petits  Poussins — -Spring 
chickens  — ■  Winter  fowls  — -  Poulets  de  Bruxelles  — •  American  soft 
roasters — The  Payntcr  method — -Shelf  brooders. 

XVIII.  THE  DUCK  INDUSTRY 298 

Profitable  ducks — -Aylesbury  ducklings — -Selection  and  breeding — - 
Early  breeding — Methods  of  duck  farming — Supply  of  Eggs — 
Hatching  and  rearing — Houses  and  sheds — Feeding — -The  "  Walsh  " 
system — Methods  of  rearing — Belgian  systems — Huttegem  and  dis- 
trict— A  Spartan  plan — Feeding  the  ducklings — -Laplaigne — Methods 
at  Laplaigne  —  Feeding  and  fattening — -American  duck  farms — 
Duck  houses  in  America — Feeding  and  killing — Feeding  and  fatten- 
ing in  Bucks — Killing. 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPIER  PAGE 

XIX.  GOOSE  FARMING 323 

Universal  decline — Reasons  for  decline — Reduction  in  demand — Size 

of  geese — Selling  gees& — Places  for  geese — Housing  geese — ■Hatch- 
ing— Rearing — Feeding  goslings — Fattening — German  methods. 

XX.  TURKEYS  AS  FARM  STOCK       -  -  -  -  -     333 
More  turkeys  wanted — Space  required — Suitable  conditions — Stock 
birds — Age   of    breeding    stock — Size    of    domesticated    turkeys — 
Number  of  hens  to  male — Houses  and  roosts — Hatching — Rearing — • 
Feeding— Turkey  poults — Fattening — Killing  and  dressing. 

XXI.  EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  PRESERVATION     -  -  -    346 

Sources  of  egg  supply — Improvements  in  egg  production — Factors 
in  egg  production — Unexhausted  capacity  of  hens — Parental  influ- 
ence— Dr.  Pearl's  investigations — Application — Effect  of  early 
laying — Traji  nesting — Winter  egg  production — Profit  attainable — ■ 
Size  of  eggs — Colour  of  shells — Preservation  of  eggs — Object  of  pre- 
servation— AVho  should  preserve — When  to  preserve — What  to  pre- 
serve— 'AMiere  to  preserve — Methods — How  long  to  keep — After 
preservation — Infection  of  eggs. 

XXII.  DISPOSAL  OF  PRODUCE 366 

A  producer's  question — The  egg  trade — Grades  of  eggs — Quality  test 

for  eggs — Value  of  eggs  as  food — Sale  of  eggs — Testing — Grading — 
Packing — Table  poultry — Markets  for  chickens. 

XXIII.  POULTRY  DISEASES 379 

Improved  definition — Scientific  research — Prevention  the  main  object 
— Contributoiy  causes— Hereditary  influences — Conditional  causes 
— Lessened  functional  activity — Causation  by  food — Healthy  stock 
• — Serum  prevention — Symptoms  of  disease — Post-mortem  examina- 
tions • —  Parasites  — ■  Simple  affections  ■ —  Various  suggestions — 
Moulting. 

XXIV.  THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY  -     396 

Capital — The  standard  of  life — Not  a  fanner's  question — Basal 
expenditure — Production  returns — Production  for  market  not  suffi- 
cient— Leakages — Houses — Keeping  birds  too  long — Selling  old 
hens  — •  Manure  ■ —  Treatment  of  manure  —  Food  —  Appliances — 
Feathers — 'Labour  —  Sex^arating  the  sexes — -Keeping  male  birds  — 
Accounts. 


INDEX 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTKATIONS 


I.  PLATES 

PLATE  PAGE 

I.  Rhode  Island  Colony  Houses  -            -            -            -            -  19 

II.  A  South  Shore  Roaster  Farm,  Mass.,  U.S.A.            -            -  105 

m.  On  a  Yorkshire  Breeding  Farm          ....  117 

IV.  Interior  of  Rancocas  Laying  House  -            -            -            -  139 

V,  Semi-Intensive  House  for  Layers       ....  143 

Intensive  Poultry  House         .....  143 

VI.  Range  of  Single  Scratching  Sheds     -            -            -            -  171 

VII.  Embryonic  Development  of  the  Chicken      -  .  .212 

VIII.  Embryonic  Development  of  the  Chicken       .            .            .  213 

IX.  Embryonic  Development  of  the  Chicken       -  .  .217 

X.  A  Mammoth  Incubator  ......  248 

XI.  Interior    of    Incubator    and    Brooder    House,    Geflugel 

Hubebtus,  Huls,  Germany   .....  249 

XII.  A  Belgian  Carpenter's  Flock  of  Malines     -            -            .  290 

XIII.  Breeding  Pens  for  Ducks        .....  303 

XIV.  Straw  Coop  for  Ducklings       -            -            -            -            -  311 
XV.  Enclosure  for  Young  Ducks  at  Laplaigne  -            .            -  315 

XVI.  Duck-Fattening  Houses  and  Pens      ....  319 

XVII.  Goose-Fattening  Sheds,  Winsen-am-Luhe,  Hanover            -  329 

XVIII.  Testing-Room  and  Table  at  Roermond,  Holland    -            -  373 


II.  FIGURES 

FIO. 

1.  Poultry  in  Orchards 

2.  Type  of  General  Purpose  Fowl    - 

3.  Type  of  Table  Fowl 

4.  Type  of  Laying  Fowl 

5.  Skeleton  op  the  Fowl 

6.  Day-Old  Chick  Boxes 

7.  "  City  "  Intensive  House     - 

8.  Ventilation  Shaft    - 

9.  Farmer's  Poultry  House 

10.  Portable  Poultry  House    - 

11.  Ideal  Poultry  House:  Front  V^iew 

12.  Ideal  Poultry  House:  Back  View 

13.  Tenant  Farmer's  House  with  Shutters 

14.  Spinney  for  Shelter 


22 
56 
57 
57 
73 
120 
135 
156 
165 
166 
167 
168 
169 
169 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Large  Scratching -Shed  House:  Froxt  Elevation- 
Leigh  Nook  Scratching  Sheds 
Bent  Iron-Wire  Fastener  for  Gate 
Formation  of  the  Egg 
Embryo,  Third  Day  .... 

Chicken  in  Shell       ..... 

Close  Hatching  Box  .... 

Double  Hatching  Bo.x  with  Lids  - 

Double  Hatching  Box  .... 

Hatching  House         ..... 

Feeding  Cages  for  Sitters 

Appearance  through  Shell  during  Incubation 

How  to  Test  an  Egg  by  Candlelight 

Testing  Lamp  ..... 

Incubator  House,  College  Poultry  Farm,  Theale 
Interior  of  Incubator  House,  College  Poultry  Farm,  T 
Incubator  Shed:  Ground  Plan 
Hearson  Incubator  ..... 

Section  of  Hearson's  Incubator    - 

Cyphers  Incubator    ..... 

Chicken-Rearing  in  Orchards 

Coop  made  from  Sugar  Box 

Sussex  Coop    ...... 

Square  Coop  ...... 

Hearson's  Foster-Motheb    -  .  .       "      . 

Miller  Brooder  ..... 

Outdoor  Cyphers  Brooder  .... 

Fireless  Brooder      ..... 

Canadian  Brooder  House    .... 

Cyphers  Four-Section  Brooder 

An  Excellent  Type  of  "Halfway  "  House 

Outside  Fattening  Cages     .... 

Fattening  Shed  at  Buxted 

Ruddin's  Fattening  Plant,  Liverpool 

Interior  of  Fattening  Shed 

Funnel  for  Cramming  .... 

Neve  Crammer  ..... 

Hearson's  Crammer  -  .  .  .  . 

Shaping  Board  ..... 

Sussex  Packing  Ped  .... 

Double  Rearing  House  for  Ducks 

Rearing  Boxes  for  Ducks  .... 

Duck  Houses  at  Landsmeer 

House  for  Geese       .  .  .  .  . 

Shed  for  Turkeys     ..... 

Roost  for  Turkeys  ..... 

Preservation  Tanks  ..... 

Size  of  Eggs  ...... 

Candling  Eggs 

PococK  Ego  Box   ..... 


t^-^iifc  t 


POULTRY   HUSBANDRY 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY 

(The  gi'owth  of  egg  and  poultry  j^roctuction  on  business  lines 
in  nearly  all  countries  over  the  entire  glofee  within  the  last  two 
decades  has  been  remarkable.  Only  those  who  have  had  an 
opportunity  by  contmuous  observation  can  form  any  idea  of 
what  has  been  done  in  this  way.  Few  there  are,  however,  who 
fully  realize  the  progress  made,  for  much  of  that  is  unrevealed. 
Frequently  small  in  the  individual  case,  it  is  enormous  in  the 
aggregate.  The  evidences  are  ever^-where  apparent  that  a  con- 
siderable advance  in  poultry-keeping  on  what  may  be  termed 
business  lines — by  which  is  meant  that  food  production  is  the 
main  object,  as  distinct  from  amateurism,  breeding  for  pleasure 
or  exhibition,  and  maintenance  on  farms  merely  to  provide  for 
household  requirements  or  to  supply  the  good  wdfe  with  pin- 
money,  which  was  at  one  time  all  too  general,  and  is  still  met 
with  to  a  large  extent — has  been  made.  In  some  countries 
progression  is  less  marked,  for  there  the  industrial  aspect  was 
already  regarded  to  a  considerable  extent;  in  others  it  has  been 
more  pronounced,  due  to  the  fact  that  in  these  the  opportunities 
for  development  were  much  greater.  Whilst,  therefore,  there  is 
no  country  of  which  I  have  knowledge  where  the  poultry  in- 
dustry is  incapable  of  great  development,  and  few  in  which  the 
limit  of  production  is  in  sight,  the  majority  have  merely  made  a 
beginning.  In  the  latter  vast  opportunities  present  themselves. 
Bej^ond  all  are  the  unoccupied  areas  of  older  and  newer  countries 
waiting  to  be  utilized.  The  human  factor  is  of  supreme  impor- 
tance. (Poultry  require,  and  must  have,  laiid  on  which  to  grow 
and  live,  from  which  to  obtain  their  food.  'All  the  land,  how- 
ever, is  useless  unless  it  is  occupied  by  a  settled  population. 
What  the  total  production  will  be  when  the  vast  areas  awaiting 
occupation  are  peopled  no  one  can  estimate.     What  has  been 

1 
I 


2  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

accomplished  is  small  as  compared  with  what  may  yet  be  done. 
It  is  all-important,  therefore,  that  each  step  forward  shall  be,  as 
far  as  possible,  on  lines  which  make  equally  for  permanencj'  and 
economic  success. 

Poultry-Keeping. — The  old  term  given  here  fitly  expresses 
what  has  been  the  case  in  the  past,  with,  of  course,  exceptions 
such  as  are  noted  in  the  following  pages — namely,  that  the 
owners  "  kept  "  the  fowls,  literally  as  well  as  morally.  It  is  not 
too  much  to  state  that  under  the  older  methods,  when  the 
poultry  were  regarded  as  a  non-economic  section  of  the  live- 
stock/and little  attempt  was  made  to  deal  with  them  as  with 
other  classes  of  farm  animals  in  which  productiveness  as  related 
to  cost  was  kept  prominent^  in  view,  or  when  those  who  adopted 
more  progressive  ideas  were  mainly  amateurs,  and  whose  opera- 
tions could  be  no  more  profitable  than  is  an  ornamental  garden 
or  conservatory,  the  vast  majority  of  poultry  kept  were  un- 
profitable in  the  usual  interpretation  of  the  term.  The  old  say- 
ing that  "  poultry  don't  pay  "  was  true  when  applied  to  such 
conditions?)  There  were,  however,  abundance  of  cases  of  indi- 
viduals and  of  districts  in  different  countries  by  which  the 
falsity  of  this  axiom,  except  for  the  indolent  and  the  ignorant, 
could  be  proved,  and  where  it  was  evident  that,  given  good 
conditions  and  right  methods,  more  especialty  in  association  with 
cultivation  of  one  form  or  another,  poultry  could  be  made 
profitable  to  an  extent  equal  with,  if  not  to  a  greater  extent 
than,  any  other  branch  of  domestic  livestock.  To  realize  that  . 
fact,  it  was  necessary  for  a  complete  change  of  methods  and 
ideals  to  be  adopted.  Such  has  been  to  some  extent  real- 
ized. What  we  have  now  to  aim  for  is  to  bring  about  that  ; 
alteration  of  system  which  will  make  poultry  husbandry  com- 
mercial in  the  fullest  sense,  so  that  m  the  future  we  may  more 
and  more  look  to  the  fowls  to  help  keep  their  owners,  rather 
than  the  owners  keep  them.  One  of  the  objects  of  the  present 
work  is  to  show  what  has  been  and  how  it  is  being  done,  and,  as 
far  as  may  be,  to  point  out  the  hne  of  future  development  in  the 
light  of  such  experience  as  is  available. 

Recent  Growth. — To  those  who  have  contributed  their  quota 
to  the  development  of  poultry  breeding  and  production  as  an 
economic  jD^rsuit,  the  marked  advance  which  has  followed  such 
efforts  is  satisfactory  in  the  extreme,  even  though  the  conscious- 
ness of  what  may  yet  be  accomplished  is  paramount.  It  is  not 
too  much  to  claim  that  in  no  branch  of  rural  industry  has  the 
same  advance  been  made  as  in  that  which  we  are  considering. 


THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY  3 

To  deal  with  the  different  countries  in  detail  would  require  a 
very  large  amount  of  space,  and  to  attempt  it  is  beyond  the 
scope  of  the  present  work.  I  am  compelled,  therefore,  to  briefly 
generalize  in  this  direction,  and  to  limit  special  treatment  to  the 
British  Isles.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  in  the  majority  of  European 
countries,  as  well  as  the  United  Kingdom — more  especially 
Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  Italy,  Austria-Hungary,  and 
Russia  —  great  advance  has  been  or  is  being  made,  the  most 
notable  of  which  is  found  in  Denmark,  Ireland,  and  Russia; 
that  in  Canada  and  the  United  States  the  progress  to  be  noted 
is  phenomenal,  possibly  greater  than  over  the  rest  of  the  world; 
and  that  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand  considerable  growth  is 
recorded.  When  we  find  a  small  country  like  Denmark  creating 
within  twenty  years  an  export  egg  trade  now  reaching  more  than 
£2,000,000  in  annual  value;  Ireland  advancing  her  exports  of 
eggs  and  poultry  to  Great  Britain  within  the  same  period  from 
about  £1,600,000  to  nearly  £4,000,000  annually,  and  that  these 
two  products  are  equal  in  value  to  the  dairy  exports  for 
which  that  island  has  alwaj's  been  famous;  the  United  States 
estimating  her  production  at  nearly  $800,000,000  (£160,000,000) 
per  annum,  with  other  nations  making  advances  to  a  greater  or 
lesser  extent;  and  Ministries  of  Agriculture  in  nearty  every 
country  seeking  to  increase  and  extend  poultry-breeding  and 
trade  in  eggs  and  fowls,  it  is  at  once  evident  that  we  are  dealing 
with  a  pursuit  of  considerable  importance.  The  once-despised 
hen  is  at  last  receiving  the  recognition  so  long  denied  her,  and 
assuming  her  place  in  solution  of  the  great  food  problem,  which, 
perhaps,  is  the  most  serious  question  presenting  itself  at  this 
time,  both  as  to  prices  and  volume.  Rapid  increase  in  the 
number  of  the  world's  inhabitants,  combined  with  aggregation 
in  dense  communities  as  a  result  of  commercial  and  industrial 
developments,  make  a  huge  demand  upon  food  resources,  and  is 
profoundly  altering  the  whole  position  of  affairs.  Nor  does  there 
appear  any  immediate  probability  of  check  to  this  tendency. 
The  consuming  poj)ulation  of  the  earth  has  grown  more  rapidly 
than  the  producing,  which  fact  explains  to  some  extent  the  rapid 
advance  in  prices.  What  has  now  to  be  done  is  to  stimulate  to 
the  utmost  production  on  lands  which  have  been  long  settled, 
making  these  yield  higher  returns,  and  as  far  as  possible  bring 
into  use  the  uncultivated  areas  of  every  country.  Whilst,  there- 
fore, more  poultry  is  essential,  equally  there  must  be  efforts  to 
secure  better  poultry — that  is,  to  obtain  a  higher  average  of 
yield  from  what  we  already  possess.  Such  can  only  be  accom- 
plished by  wide  dissemination  of  knowledge  and  experience. 


4  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Great  Britain. — Until  the  poultry  census  was  taken  in  1908, 
there  were  no  reliable  returns  as  to  the  poultry  population  of 
England,  Scotland,  and  Wales.  Ireland  and  most  other  coun- 
tries were  able  to  show  statistics  ajBfording  a  basis  for  com- 
parisons. During  the  years  1884  and  1885  poultry  were  in- 
cluded in  the  annual  British  livestock  returns,  but  these  were 
manifestlj^  incomplete,  and  did  not  discriminate  between  adult 
and  young  stock.  If  these  are  taken,  however,  the  results  afford 
ground  for  satisfaction,  in  that  from  1885  to  1908  fowls  had 
increased  by  623  (381  to  1,004)  per  1,000  acres  of  cultivated 
land;  ducks  mcreased  b}^  23  (68  to  91);  geese  had  decreased  by 

5  (27  to  22);  and  turkeys  had  increased  by  6  (15  to  21),  propor- 
tionate to  the  area  named.  Taking  all  together,  the  net  increase 
was  in  twenty-three  years,  if  these  returns  are  comparable, 
231  per  cent.  That  is  quite  within  a  reasonable  computation, 
though  far  beloAV  what  is  the  case  in  some  countries. 

A  correct  computation,  however,  cannot  be  based  upon  the 
grouping  together  of  old  and  young  birds.  What  must  be  taken 
is  the  number  of  adult  fowls,  as  these  form  the  productive  stock 
of  the  country.  I  have,  therefore,  extracted  from  the  1908 
census  returns  the  number  of  birds  hatched  prior  to  that  year, 
and  worked  out  the  number  per  1,000  acres  of  cultivated  land 
for  the  respective  countries.  As,  however,  fowls  and  ducks  are 
so  much  smaller  in  body,  and  require  much  less  space  than  do 
geese  and  turkej^sr  in  the  second  column  under  each  head  of  the 
following  table  the  last-named  have  been  corrected  in  averages 
— that  is,  multiplied  by  five,  on  the  assumption  that  the  number 
stated  of  fowls  or  ducks  is  equal  to  one  goose  or  turkey.  This 
enables  us  to  obtain  an  indication  of  what  was  the  position  in 
the  year  named  in  relation  to  the  capacity  of  the  country. 

Average  Number  of  Adult  Poultry  in  Britain  (1908)  per  Thousand 
Acres  of  Cultivated  Land. 


Country. 

Fowls 

per 

1,000 

Acres. 

Ducks 
per 
1,000 

Acres. 

Geese.                   Turkeys. 

All  Poultry. 

Ip 

Corrected 
Averages. 

Actual 

per  1,000 

Acres. 

II 

li 

II 

England     . . 
Wales 
Scotland     . . 

560-0 
444-8 
499-4 

30-0 
36-9 
38-0 

7-0 

24-7 

2-4 

35-0        6-9 

123-5        8-9 

12-0        5-5 

29-5 
44-5 

27-5 

602-9 
515-3 
545-3 

654-5 
649-7 
576-9 

Great  Britain 

538-4 

31-9         7-8 

39-0       6-1 

40-5     584-2 

639-8 

These  figures  show  that  upon  the  farms  of  the  country  there 
was  less  than  two -thirds  of  a  fowl,  or  its  equivalent,  per  acre  of 


THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY  5 

cultivated  land  in  Great  Britain,  England  and  Wales  being  fairly 
equal,  and  Scotland,  except  in  a  few  districts,  considerably 
behind.  Such  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  satisfactory  condition 
of  affairs,  and,  as  shown  later,  is  far  below  the  capacity  of  the 
country.  Though  the  progress  made  from  1885  to  1908  was 
considerable,  there  is  abundance  of  room  for  development.  In 
addition  to  the  adult  poultry,  the  number  of  young  birds  recorded 
on  June  4,  1908,  was  as  follows : 

Chickens             14,913,000 

Ducklings           1,934,000 

Goslings              459,000 

Turkeys               498,000 

The  total  number  of  adult  and  young  poultry  respectively  was 
almost  the  same,  the  older  birds  being  slightly  in  excess.  It  is 
necessary  to  remember  that  the  figures  quoted  only  apply  to 
occupations  of  an  acre  and  upwards.  Therefore,  all  allotments 
of  less  than  an  acre,  cottage  gardens,  and  fowls  kept  by  other 
rural  and  by  urban  and  siiburban  residents,  are  excluded.  It  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  in  manj^  districts  the  numbers  recorded 
would  have  been  more  than  doubled  had  these  been  included. 
As  examples  may  be  cited  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire,  where  it 
is  certain  that  the  total  of  fowls  kept  on  plots  of  less  than  an 
acre  are  vastly  in  excess  of  those  found  on  the  farms  of  these  great 
counties.     We  have,  however,  to  accept  the  statistics  provided. 

Ireland. — The  section  of  the  United  Kingdom  which  has  made 
the  greatest  advance  in  connection  with  poultry  husbandry  is 
Ireland,  which,  as  figures  given  below  indicate,  is  considerably 
in  advance  of  Great  Britain.  It  was  my  privilege  in  1887  to 
take  part  in  lajdng  the  foundations  for  such  development.  In 
the  year  named  I  was  commissioned  by  the  proprietor  of  the 
Weekly  Freeman  of  Dublin,  the  late  Mr.  E.  Dwyer  Gray,  M.P., 
to  make  an  exhaustive  inquiry  into  the  poultry  industry  of  that 
country,  with  a  view  to  seeing  how  far  it  was  capable  of  exten- 
sion, and  the  lines  upon  which  it  could  be  developed.  The 
results  have  indeed  been  remarkable,  not  only  in  respect  to  an 
increase  of  exports,  but  also  to  advancement  of  the  prosperity 
of  its  i)eople.  At  that  time  the  way  in  which  eggs  and  poultry 
were  packed  and  shipped  was  about  as  bad  as  it  well  could  be, 
with  few  exceptions.  Coming  a  little  later  into  competition  with 
produce  from  France  and  Denmark,  carefully  graded  and  packed 
and  in  fine  condition,  for  a  time  Irish  supplies  were  at  a  discount, 
commanding  very  low  prices.  Thanks  to  the  efforts  put  forth, 
there  has  been  a  revolution  in  these  directions,  and  Irish  produce 
now  holds  a  relatively  high  place  on  the  British  markets,  though 


6  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

there  is  much  yet  to  be  done  by  adoption  of  improved  methods. 
Poultry  and  egg  production  now  occupies  the  third  place  in 
Ireland's  rural  industries,  and  has  contributed  very  largely  to 
its  prosperity. 

In  1887,  when  the  inquiry  already  referred  to  was  made,  there 
were  no  official  figures  as  to  the  value  of  exports.  Statistics 
were,  however,  obtained  from  all  ports  of  shipment,  from  which 
it  was  estimated  that  the  total  value  of  eggs  and  poultry  shipped 
to  Britain  was  £1,666,000.  Since  1904  official  returns  have  been 
available,  showing  a  steady  rise.     In  1912  the  exports  were — 


Poultry    ., 


£ 
2,926,582 
1,037,771 

3,964,353 


If  feathers  are  added,  the  total  would  be  upwards  of  £4,000,000. 
The  dairy  industry,  for  which  Ireland  has  always  been  famous, 
exported  butter  to  the  value  of  £4,159,972,  and  cheese  £32,832, 
or  a  total  of  £4,192,804.  One  striking  fact  is  that  the  imports 
of  poultr}^  into  Britain  in  the  year  named  from  all  colonies  and 
foreign  countries  was,  less  re-exports,  £725,146,  so  that  Irish 
supplies  were  greater  by  no  less  a  sum  than  £312,625,  which  is  a 
remarkable  tribute  to  the  efforts  of  central  and  other  authorities 
engaged  in  developing  the  resources  of  the  country. 

Taking  the  same  basis  as  adopted  for  Great  Britain,  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  averages  of  poultry  for  Ireland: 

Average  Number  of  Adult  Poultry  in  Ireland  (1913)  per  Thousand 
Acres  of  Cultivated  Land. 


Fowls 

per  1,000 

Acres. 

Ducks 

per  1,000 

Acres. 

Geese. 

Turkeys. 

All  Poultry.           1 

Actual 

per  1,000 

Acres. 

Corrected 
Averages. 

Actual 

per  1,000 

Acres. 

Corrected 
Averages. 

Actual 

per  1.000 

Acres. 

Corrected 
Avenigcs. 

796-8 

140-0 

31-0 

155-0 

11-6 

58-0 

179-4 

1149-8 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  actual  number  of  poultry 
in  Ireland  (1913)  was  greater  by  67  per  cent,  than  in  Britain 
(1908),  and  that  the  corrected  averages  was  greater  by  79  per  cent. 

Production  in  the  United  Kingdom. — The  figures  here  set  forth 
enable  us  to  form  an  estimate  as  to  tho  total  value  of  the  eggs 
and  poultiy  produced  in  the  United  Kingdom,  leaking  the 
tables  as  given  in  the  poultry  census  of  1908  for  Great  Britain, 
and  adding  to  these  the  smaller  poultry-keepers  who  conduct 
their  operations  for  home  consumption  or  sale,  a  conservative 


THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY  7 

assumption  is  that  producers  realize  in  one  way  or  the  other  a 
return  of  £10,000,000  per  annum.  In  Ireland  we  have  to  add 
to  the  export  figures  the  home  consumption,  which  may  be  safely 
placed  at  £1,000,000  annually.  Therefore,  we  arrive  at  the  con- 
clusion that  the  total  wholesale  value  of  eggs  and  poultry  pro- 
duced in  the  United  Kingdom  is  at  least  £15,000,000  per  annum. 
To  these,  however,  should  be  added  all  the  contributory  business 
done,  such  as  sale  of  appliances,  foodstuffs,  stock,  and  traders' 
profits,  so  that  the  total  value  of  the  poultry  industry  must  be 
nearly  £20,000,000  annually. 

We  have  also  to  take  into  account  the  imports,  which  in  1913 
were  as  follows: 

£ 

Eggs  9,590,080 

Poultry 955,238 

10,545,318 

Thus  the  total  consumption  of  these  two  articles  of  food  is 
£25,545,318. 

Such  figures  are  large  in  the  aggregate,  but  small  individually 
when  divided.  The  annual  consumption  of  eggs  is  only  about 
111  per  head  of  the  population,  and  less  than  one  fowl  per  head 
per  annum,  which  is  an  indication  that  the  consuming  capacity 
of  the  country  is  far  from  being  reached.  In  several  countries 
the  consumption  of  both  eggs  and  poultry  is  higher  than  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  As  it  is,  the  total  weight  of  the  eggs  con- 
sumed reaches  the  enormous  figure  of  347,000  tons  yearly,  on 
the  usual  trade  basis  of  120  great  hundreds  to  the  ton,  of  which 
nearly  200,000  tons  are  produced  within  the  British  Isles. 

Capacity  for  Production. — In  this  connection  it  is  desirable  to 
seek  for  guidance  as  to  what  are  the  possible  developments  of 
the  country,  with  a  view  to  discernment  as  to  how  far  increase 
can  be  obtained.  Thirty-five  years  ago,  when  I  first  studied  this 
question  in  its  economic  aspect,  the  fact  which  burnt  itself 
upon  my  mind  was  that,  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  farmers 
and  others  in  this  country,  merely  a  fraction  were  attempting  to 
deal  with  egg  and  poultry  production  on  business  lines,  as  that 
the  latent  possibilities  of  demand  for  these  articles  of  food  were 
almost  incalculable.  At  a  later  period  it  seemed  as  if  much 
might  be  done  by  establishment  of  special  poultry  farms.  Ex- 
perience both  at  home  and  abroad  speedily  dissipated  that  idea. 
It  was  seen  that  a  country  can  only  be  fed,  so  far  as  natural 
products  are  concerned,  by  agriculturists,  and  that  fowls  can- 
not be  treated  in  factory  fashion,  except  m  the  final  processes 
such  as  fattening.     These  must  be  gi'own  and  maintained  in  due 


8  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

relation  to  cultivation,  as  are  other  classes  of  stock.  After  many 
years  of  careful  study  and  observation,  the  conclusion  arrived  at 
was  that,  taking  the  country  as  a  whole,  three  adult  fowls,  or 
their  equivalent,  on  the  assumption  that  five  fowls  or  ducks  are 
equal  to  one  goose  or  turkey,  could  be  maintained  continuously 
per  acre  of  cultivated  land,  without  displacement  of  any  other 
stock  or  interference  with  any  crop.  Upon  this  basis,  which,  it 
maj^  be  explained,  has  nearly  been  reached  in  one  Irish  county, 
it  is  possible  to  form  a  reasonable  estimate  of  how  far  the  nation 
as  a  whole  could  provide  for  its  own  needs.  The  following  cal- 
culations do  not  take  into  account  rough  grazings,  of  which  there 
are  nearly  13,000,000  acres  in  Britain  alone,  but  include  occupa- 
tions below  an  acre  in  extent: 


Country. 

Acres  of  Cultivated 
Land. 

Present  Number  of 
Adult  Fowls  (cor- 
rected). 

Possible  Number 
of  Adult  Fowls 
(3  per  Acre). 

England 

Wales 

Scotland 
Ireland 

24,414,493 
2,760,197 
4,821,334 

14,673,788 

15,469,000 
1,628,000 
2,731,000 

15,640,000 

35,468,000 

73,243,479 

8,280,591 

14,464,002 

44,021,304 

140,009,436 

Totals       . . 

46,669,812 

A  modest  estimate  is  that,  on  the  basis  stated  of  three  adult 
fowls  to  the  acre,  there  should  be  a  gross  annual  return  in  sales 
of  eggs  and  poultry,  or  those  consumed  in  the  households  of 
owners,  equal  to  £1  per  acre  per  annum.  That  amount  is  often 
exceeded  as  a  result  of  good  management,  and  I  have  known  as 
much  as  30s.  to  40s.  per  acre  realized  in  this  way,  which,  as  sup- 
plemental to  ordinary  cropping,  is  an  important  addition.  It 
is  safer,  however,  to  take  the  lower  sum.  Whether  eggs,  or 
chickens,  or  ducklings,  or  goslings,  or  turkeys  are  produced  docs 
not  affect  the  calculation.  A  further  point  is  the  manurial  value 
of  fowls,  which  may  be  reasonably  computed  at  3s.  4d.  per  acre 
per  annum,  inclusive  of  the  young  stock  reared.  The  results 
would  therefore  be — 


Cc^untrv                                   Possible  Annual  Value 
^°^^^^y-                                       at  £1  per  Acre. 

Manurial  Value  at 
3s.  4d.  per  Acre. 

England          

Wales               

Scotland         

Ireland            

£24,414,493 
2,760,197 
4,821,334 
14,673,788 

£4,069,082 

460,033 

803,556 

2,445,631 

Totals          

£46,669,812 

£7,778,303 

THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY 


9 


The  full  county  figures  take  too  much  space  to  quote,  but 
can  be  worked  out  from  the  agricultural  returns.  That  our 
people  could  consume  all  that  can  be  produced  is  unquestion- 
able. If  every  inhabitant  ate  an  egg  every  alternate  day,  the 
annual  value  for  this  product  alone  would  be  £34,000,000  sterling. 
There  is  no  apparent  reason  why  such  should  net  be  attained; 
and,  in  addition,  poultry  could  be  consumed  to  a  much  larger 
extent. 

Consumption  of  Eggs  and  Poultry.— Reference  has  already  been 
made  to  the  respective  values  of  eggs  and  poultry  produced  in, 
and  imported  into,  the  United  Kingdom,  which  enables  an  esti- 
mate to  be  made  as  to  the  total  consumption.  The  following 
figures,  in  the  light  of  what  is  recorded  above,  may  be  regarded 
as  a  conservative  representation  of  the  wholesale  value  of  these 
two  products: 


Eggs. 

Poultry.                   Totals. 

British  produce 

Irish  produce 

Colonial  and  foreign  produce 

£7,500,000 
3,750,000 
9,590,080 

£2,500,000       £10,000,000 

1,250,000           5,000,000 

955,238          10,545,318 

Totals 

£20,840,080 

£4,705,238       £24,545,318 

Great  though  the  consumption  which  is  represented  by  these 
figures  may  be  in  the  aggregate,  yet  it  only  represents  lis.  per 
head  of  the  population,  or  £2  15s.  per  family  per  annum,  which 
is  a  low  average,  one  capable  of  great  increase. 

That  the  very  large  advance  in  consumption,  of  eggs  espe- 
cially, within  recent  years  is  due  in  large  measure  to  changed 
conditions  of  life  in  this  and  other  countries  is  unquestionable. 
It  is  not  a  mere  fashion,  but  an  absolute  necessity  for  food  of  a 
highly  nutritious  nature,  yet  easy  of  assimilation.  Therefore, 
we  are  justified  in  assuming  that  consumption  will  increase  at  an 
ever  accelerated  pace,  provided  that  supplies  are  forthcoming  and 
prices  do  not  advance  sufiiciently  to  check  demand.  In  another 
place  I  have  suggested  "  that  changes  in  environment  and  habits 
of  life  lead,  apart  from  other  impelling  ckcumstances,  to  corre- 
sponding alterations  in  the  class  of  food  consumed.  This  is 
abundantly  evident  with  man  and  animal  alike  in  all  cHmates. 
So  long  as  the  people  live  mainly  upon  the  land,  working  in  the 
open  air,  and  exercising  their  muscles  and  organs  bj'  hard  manual 
labour,  they  are  able  to  enjoy  and  assimilate  the  coarser,  heavier 
foods;  but  when  their  days  are  to  be  passed  in  great  cities,  ex- 


10  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

pending  their  energies  in  factory,  or  office,  or  working  with  brain 
rather  than  muscle,  nature  craves  and  demands  food  of  a  very 
different  class — food  that  is  high  in  nutritive  values,  but  with  a 
small  amount  of  fibre,  easih'  digested,  and  appetizing.  We  have 
here,  apart  from  other  reasons,  one  explanation  of  the  enormous 
increase  in  the  consumption  of  what  might  be  termed  lighter 
articles  of  food,  such  as  eggs  and  poultry.  It  is  unnecessary  for 
me  to  do  more  than  mention  this  fact,  save  to  emphasize  that 
its  recognition  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  change  is  per- 
manent, and  not  transitory.  Such  being  the  case,  any  tendencies 
to  be  noted  may  be  regarded  as  likely  to  increase  rather  than 
decrease."*  What  is  here  stated  explains  the  great  growth  of 
consumption  in  all  countries,  more  especially  those  where  indus- 
trial and  commercial  developments  are  taking  place.  A  further 
factor,  however,  is  that  there  has  been  decided  advance  in  the 
qualities  of  sujiplies,  due  to  adoption  of  improved  and  more  ex- 
peditious methods  of  marketing,  and  the  stimulation  of  produc- 
tion by  realization  of  higher  prices. 

Advancing  Prices. — One  of  the  marked  tendencies  of  recent 
3'ears  has  been  a  steady  advance  in  the  prices  of  nearly  all  classes 
of  food  products,  in  some  more  than  others.  The  effect  is  to 
enhance  the  cost  of  production,  though  that  does  not  offer  an 
entire  explanation.  The  law  of  supply  and  demand  largely  deter- 
mines values.  So  far  as  eggs  and  poultry  are  concerned,  it  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  demand  has  increased  much  more  rapidly 
than  supply,  great  though  the  advance  of  poultry-keeping  has 
been  over  the  entire  globe.  Several  countries  which  were  at  one 
time  sending  large  quantities  of  eggs  and  poultry  have  reduced 
their  supplies  considerably,  in  one  or  two  instances  by  finding 
more  profitable  markets  elsewhere,  but  chiefly  owing  to  greater 
consumption  at  home.  Special  examples  are  afforded  by  the 
British  colonies.  A  few  years  ago  it  appeared  as  if  these  were 
to  become  important  sources  of  our  overseas  supplies,  and  for  a 
time  the  volume  of  imports  from  these  steadily  advanced.  Then 
came  a  check,  and  afterwards  a  steady  decline,  until  now  they 
are  a  mere  bagatelle — only  J  per  cent,  of  our  imports,  and  less 
than  jV  P^^'  cent,  of  our  total  consumption.  Out  of  everj^  £1,000 
worth  of  eggs  and  poultry  consumed  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  supplies  from  British  possessions  are  less  in  value  than  £1 
sterling. 

Within  the  last  ten  years  the  prices  of  eggs  and  poultry  have 
steadily  advanced.  It  is  difficult  to  obtain  absolute  figures 
respecting  the  last-named, —  first,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that 

*  "  Ileport  on  the  Poultry  Industry  in  Gemiany,"  1912,  p.  17. 


THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY  11 

market  reports  are  not  very  reliable,  in  that  birds  are  usually 
sold  by  the  piece,  varying  in  accordance  with  size  and  quality; 
and,  second,  that  weights  of  poultry  were  not  recorded  in  the 
Trade  and  Navigation  Returns  until  1912.  We  have,  therefore, 
to  rely  upon  the  evidence  of  traders,  which  is  to  the  effect  that 
there  has  been  a  marked  increase.  So  far  as  eggs  are  concerned, 
we  are  on  surer  ground.  Since  1904,  the  advance  in  price  of 
home-grown  eggs  has  been  about  2s.  per  120.  In  the  same  period 
— 1904  to  1912 — the  avera.ge  values  of  Irish  eggs  have  increased 
from  7s.  l^d.  to  9s.  Ifd.  per  120.  With  regard  to  imported  eggs, 
from  1898  to  1904  they  were  fairly  steady,  ranging  from  6s.  2d. 
to  7s.  per  120.  Since  the  last-named  year,  when  they  were  6s.  9d. 
per  great  hundred,  the  rise  was  constant  and  rapid,  reaching  in 
1913  a  maximum  of  8s.  10|d.  per  120.  Up  to  that  time  there 
had  been  an  equally  steady  decline  in  quantities,  mainly  owing 
to  a  greater  consumption  in  German}^  which  tapped  our  sources 
of  supply.  That  country  is  now  the  greatest  importer  of  eggs 
and  poultry,  the  total  value  of  which  is  upwards  of  £12,500,000 
per  annum,  having  nearly  doubled  within  fifteen  years.  The 
returns  of  imports  of  eggs  into  the  United  Kingdom  from  1904 
to  1912  were— 

Quantities  : 
Great  Hundreds.  Values. 

lyO-i  ..  ..     19,942,594  £(3,730,574 

1912  . .  . .      19,085,052  8,394,524 


Variations    ..  857,542  (decrease).  £1,063,950  (increase). 

Thus,  for  nearly  103,000,000  fewer  eggs,  or  a  reduction  of  7,000 
tons,  imported  in  1912  than  in  1904,  we  had  to  pay  £1,663,950 
more.  In  1913  there  was  a  considerable  recovery  in  quantity, 
mainly  from  Russia  and  Denmark,  the  total  increase,  as  com- 
pared with  1912,  being  2,494,898  great  hundreds,  the  total  values 
an  advance  of  £1,196,078.  The  average  price  was  8s.  10|d.  The 
comparisons  of  1904  and  1913  were — 

Quantities: 

Great  Hundreds.  Values. 

1904             ..          ..     19,942,594  £0,730,574 

1913            ..          ..     21,579,950  9,590,602 


Increases        ..       1,637,356  £2,860,028 

Of  the  eggs  imported  during  recent  years,  Russia  has  been 
responsible  for  more  than  50  per  cent.,  and  of  poultry  she  has 
sent  us  more  than  40  per  cent.  These  are  among  the  cheapest 
grades  seen  upon  our  markets.  In  eggs,  Denmark  sends  us 
nearly  20  per  cent,  of  the  total.     These  countries  and  the  Nether- 


12  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

lands  are  the  only  ones  that  have  made  any  appreciable  increases. 
Italj'  and  Austria-Hungary  have  largely  decreased. 

Effect  of  High  Prices. — So  far  as  I  am  able  to  discern,  there  is 
no  immediate  danger  of  check  to  consumption  of  poultry  of 
various  grades  as  a  result  of  enhanced  prices.  The  relative  con- 
sumption is  so  small  as  compared  with  the  population,  and  the 
number  of  householders  able  to  buy  even  higher  grades  than  at 
present  do  so,  so  far  limited,  that  we  can  equably  face  a  large 
increase  of  better  quality  birds  without  fear.  It  is  necessary  to 
remember  that  the  great  mass  of  our  people  never  buy  poultry 
except,  perhaps,  at  the  Christmas  season.  The  trade  is  therefore 
mainh^  restricted  to  those  in  comfortable  circumstances.  Such 
is  not  the  case  with  eggs,  which  are  entering  to  a  greater  extent 
than  ever  into  the  food  of  our  industrial  workers.  In  the  Rhine 
Provinces  of  Germany  I  was  informed  that  the  wives  of  working 
men  find  that  their  husbands  are  as  satisfied  with  two  eggs  as  if 
they  had  J  pound  of  meat  at  a  meal.  The  fact  is  that  an  egg 
contains  more  nutriment  than  ^  pound  of  beef  or  pork.  Con- 
sidering that  a  couple  of  eggs  cost  less  than  half  as  much  as 
J  kilogramme  of  meat,  in  view  of  the  great  advance  in  price  of 
the  latter,  German  women  use  eggs  to  a  much  greater  extent. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  LINES  OF  DEVELOPMENT 

It  is  a  great  gain  to  have  arrived  at  the  stage  when  general 
acknowledgment  is  made  that  there  is  need  for  advance  in  the 
poultry  husbandry  of  this  country,  and  also  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  opportunities  are  present  enabling  such  advance  to  be 
made.  In  these  respects  a  great  change  has  come  over  the  scene, 
which  is  realizable  alone  by  those  who  undertook  the  onerous 
task  of  awakening  the  minds  of  farmers  and  others  to  what  was 
being  lost  by  them.  The  atmosphere  is  totally  different  from 
what  was  the  case  twenty  j^'ears  ago.  Instead  of  indifference  on 
the  part  of  farmers  and  others  most  concerned,  and  the  an- 
tagonism of  those  whose  interests  and  sympathies  were  in  other 
directions,  we  have  hearty  co-operation  from  nearly  all  classes 
of  the  community,  and  an  earnest  desire  on  the  part  of  many 
farmers  to  improve  this  branch  of  then-  operations.  The  re- 
sponsibility is  not  so  much  in  the  direction  of  providing  a  stimulus 
as  of  holding  those  back  who,  from  excess  of  imagination,  plus 
want  of  experience,  are  desirous  of  takmg  up  this  pursuit,  know- 
ing little  or  nothing  of  what  is  involved,  utterly  failing  to  realize 
that  poultry-keeping  must  either  be  part  of  general  farming,  or 
a  highly  specialized  business  demanding  special  qualities  and 
wide  knowledge,  and  should  not  be  undertaken  by  any  who 
desire  to  live  by  it  without  a  thorough  training  of  the  most 
practical  character,  together  either  with  other  means  of  liveli- 
hood or  sufficient  capital  for  establishment  and  carrying  over  the 
initiatory  period.  It  is  above  all  essential  to  abandon  amateur 
or  fancy  ideals,  which  bj^  their  limitations  have  wrought  much 
harm.  "  Plajdng  at  shops  "  is  no  qualification  for  running  a 
business,  as  many  would-be  poultry  farmers  seem  to  imagine. 
What  has  painfully  impressed  me  during  interviews  with  hundreds 
of  mquirers  who  have  sought  mformation  upon  this  subject,  is  the 
utter  absence  of  any  clear  understanding  of  the  position.     Misled 


14  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

by  extravagant  statements  of  vendors  of  stock  or  appliances,  or  by- 
articles  and  statements  in  newspapers,  written  without  any  know- 
ledge of  what  is  involved,  many  have  risked  and  lost  their  all. 

Extensive  or  Intensive. — It  may  be  well  at  this  point  to  state 
that  there  are  two  schools  of  thought  in  respect  to  this  branch 
of  natural  science — for  science  it  is — namely,  those  who  believe 
that  the  future  of  poultry  husbandry  is  to  be  purely  on  extensive 
lines  on  the  one  hand,  and  those  who  pin  all  their  faith  upon 
intensive  methods  on  the  other.  It  will  be  seen  below  that  both 
these  systems  will  have  their  place,  and  that  neither  can  solve 
the  problem  alone.  They,  however,  differ  only  in  degree.  The 
basal  princijiles  must  be  the  same,  and  one  can  be  the  counter- 
part of  the  other.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  freely  acknow- 
ledged that  for  food  production  the  extensive  method — that  is, 
poultry  husbandry  as  part  of  general  farming — is,  and  will  always 
be,  the  main  source  of  supply.  And,  further,  as  a  question  of 
profit,  owing  to  lower  cost  of  production,  that  offers  the  greater 
opportunity,  and  is  of  more  value  in  respect  to  the  national 
welfare.  Special  breeding  establishments  are  contributory 
thereto,  and  intensive  methods  merely  supplemental.  What  we 
should  aim  for,  as  previously  mentioned,  is  development  of  farm 
poultry  rather  than  poultry  farming,  even  though  it  is  admitted 
other  plans  may  to  some  etxent  be  adopted.  The  great  American 
plants,  of  which  so  much  has  been  written,  and  some  of  which 
I  have  visited,  are  striking  examples  of  what  is  here  set  forth. 

In  the  light,  therefore,  of  what  has  already  been  stated,  and 
experience  gained  as  to  demand  and  opportunities,  we  may 
consider  what  can  be  done.  The  growth  of  past  days,  great 
though  it  may  have  been,  is  only  a  beginning.  It  may  be  and 
is  necessary  to  revise  our  methods,  to  adopt  new  ideas,  to 
abandon  notions  long  held.  What  we  must  do  is  to  build  upon 
what  has  been  proved,  and  to  recognize  natural  laws  as  far  as 
we  understand  them,  which,  however  valuable  these  may  be  if 
utilized,  are  bad  enemies  to  fight,  and  are  certain  to  come  off 
conquerors.  Whether  our  operations  be  extensive  or  intensive 
— and,  in  my  judgment,  the  former  must  be  depended  upon 
as  the  permanent  factor  in  poiiltry  husbandrj^ — it  is  above  all 
essential  that  there  shall  be  a  clear  understanding  of  basal  prin- 
ciples in  each  direction.  It  cannot  too  clearly  be  emphasized 
that,  whilst  certain  of  these  principles  apply  to  every  form  of 
poultry-breeding,  there  are  others  which  are  peculiar  to  each. 
What  can  be  done  under  one  set  of  conditions  is  useless  under 
another.  Much  loss  has  arisen  by  thinking  that  large  farm  methods 
may  be  successfully  adopted  on  small  occupations,  and  vice  versa. 


THE  LTNE8  OF  DEVELOPMENT 


15 


Farmers  and  Poultry  Husbandry. — A  very  interesting  point 
arises  in  this  connection — that  is,  the  relative  number  of  poultry 
kept  in  relation  to  the  size  of  the  respective  farms.  Greater 
space  does  not  mean  increased  production.  In  fact,  it  is  generally 
admitted  that  in  all  branches  of  cultivation  and  livestock  the 
relative  productiveness  decreases  as  the  area  of  land  individually 
occupied  increases.  Such  is  certainly  the  case  with  poultry  in 
all  countries.  It  is  where  the  occupations  are  modest  in  size 
that  we  find  the  greatest  number  of  birds  i^fo  rata.  Here  the 
human  factor  counts.  Men  are  as  essential  to  development  of 
this  industry  as  are  land  and  fowls.  A  thousand  acres  of  land 
divided  into  twenty  or  fifty  holdings  will  employ  ten  to  twenty 
times  as  many  people  as  the  same  extent  of  land  embraced  within 
a  single  ring  fence.  Hence  the  importance  of  recent  movements 
for  an  increase  of  small  holdings  and  allotments,  not  alone  as  a 
means  of  providing  livelihood  to  a  greater  number  of  people — 
though  that  is  a  question  which  demands  constant  attention — 
but  in  respect  to  a  fuller  development  of  the  national  resources 
in  the  direction  of  food-supply. 

Some  most  suggestive  information  is  given  in  the  poultrj^ 
census  of  1908,  in  which  is  recorded  the  average  number  of 
poultry  kept  per  100  acres  in  Great  Britain  with  respect  to  the 
size  of  holding.  The  figures  are  given  below,  with  the  corrected 
totals  in  the  last  column,  on  the  basis  of  five  geese  or  turkeys 
being  equal  to  one  fowl  or  duck.  It  may  be  explained  that  these 
figures  are  inclusive  of  adult  and  young  stock. 

Average  Number  of  Poultry  per  Hundred  Acres  of  Cultfvated  Land. 


Class  of  Holding. 

Fowls. 

Ducks. 

Geese. 

Tur-    Corrected 
keys.      Totals, 

Above       1  and  not  exceeding   5  acres 
5         „             „            ,50     „ 
50         „             .,          300     „ 
„       300  acres            

Total  Averages 

940 

244 

77 

37 

86 

21 

7 

3 

8 
4 
2 

7       1,101 
3          810 
2          104 
1            50 

1 

100 

9 

2 

2           129 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  there  were  twentj^-two  times  as  many 
poultry  on  occupations  of  less  than  5  acres  than  on  farms  of 
300  acres  and  upwards,  and  nearly  six  times  as  many  on  farms 
of  5  to  50  acres  as  on  those  exceeding  the  last-named  area. 
What  is  most  suggestive  is  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  turkeys 
as  the  size  of  farm  increases,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  this  species 
demands  greater  range  than  other  poultry.     In  this  direction 


16  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

larger  farms  are  failing  to  meet  the  country's  requirements,  and 
there  is  no  natural  reason  why  the  number  of  turkeys  should  not 
be  multiplied  tenfold  thereon  in  the  near  future.  It  is  again  the 
human  factor  that  is  at  fault. 

Relationship  to  Cultivation. — In  considering  this  branch  of 
the  subject — namely,  farm  poultry-keeping — it  cannot  be  too 
strongl}'  emphasized  that  fowls  must  bear  in  number  and  dis- 
tribution relationship  to  cultivation.  That  in  this  direction 
there  may  be  variations  can  be  accepted.  In  some  places — 
that  is,  upon  some  soils — more  can  be  kept  than  upon  others. 
The  basis  is,  however,  the  same.  This  question  is  further  con- 
sidered below  under  the  head  of  Manurial  Influence.  What  I 
desire  to  make  clear  is  that  an  excess  of  animal  life  is  certain  to 
induce  disease,  as  a  result  of  tainted  ground.  That  applies  to 
poultry  as  much  as  to  other  stock.  Therefore  plant  growth  must 
be  the  greater.  Practically  speaking,  many  of  the  failures  met 
with,  and  all  the  epidemics  which  I  have  seen,  have  been  due 
to  a  lack  of  recognition  of  what  is  here  set  forth.  To  avoid  this, 
the  birds  must  be  distributed  over  the  area  available.  It  is  not 
enough  to  maintain  fowls  on  the  basis  already  laid  down  m  the 
previous  chapter — namely,  three  adults  to  the  acre — if  all  are 
concentrated  around  the  homestead.  In  that  case  the  last  state 
would  be  worse  than  the  first.  A  striking  example  of  what  is 
here  submitted  has  been  seen  in  connection  with  turkey-breeding 
in  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  in  the  United  States,  where 
a  once-important  industry  has  been  almost  destroyed.  Although 
the  farms  are  fair  in  size,  the  birds  were,  as  a  rule,  kept  near  the 
homesteads  continuously  year  by  year  on  the  same  ground,  with 
the  result  that  the  land  became  turkey  sick,  a  disease  known  as 
''  blackhead  "  broke  out,  and  there  was  widespread  disaster.  On 
farms,  therefore,  the  j)rimarj^  need  is  for  making  poultry  part  of 
the  operations,  and  to  keep  only  as  many  as  can  become  a  rotation 
without  injury  to  the  ordinary  cropping,  whatever  that  may  be. 

Arable  versus  Pasture  Land. — Hitherto  the  great  majority  of 
those  who  have  taken  up  poultry  -  keeping,  whether  as  stock 
breeders  or  for  market  requirements,  have  regarded  grassland 
as  most  desirable  for  their  purpose,  mainly  by  reason  of  the  fact 
that  pastures  supply  a  large  amount  of  green  food,  and  also  that 
the  need  for  experience  as  to  cropping  and  cultivation  of  the  soil 
is  obviated.  Exceptions  are,  however,  to  be  found.  Where 
fruit  is  the  first  object,  and  poultry  supplemental  thereto,  the 
advantages  of  broken  ground  have  been  abundantly  evident. 
Up  to  the  present  period  those  who  have  adopted  the  method 


THE  LINES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  17 

of  poultry-keeping  on  arable  or  dug  land  have  been  chiefly  fruit- 
growers^ cottagers^  and  small  occupiers  with  a  very  limited  area 
of  ground  available.  Some  very  striking  cases  have  been  pub- 
lished of  success  achieved  by  the  combination  named.  We  all 
know  that  when  fowls  are  "  yarded/'  to  use  an  Americanism,  the 
grass  becomes  coarse  and  grows  in  clumps,  which  are  unsightty, 
and  the  herbage  fails  to  completely  utilize  the  manure.  Such 
may  be  regarded  as  a  sign  that  the  time  has  come  when  removal 
is  essential. 

My  observations  in  Belgium,  Dernnark,  and  elsewhere,  as  well 
as  in  our  own  country,  have  shown  that  much  larger  flocks  of 
poultry  can  be  kept  by  arable  farmers  than  has  hitherto  been 
thought  possible.  The  opportunities  for  extension  under  such 
conditions  are  very  great.  To  carry  out  the  work  successfully, 
however,  methods  nuist  be  adopted  in  accordance  therewith. 

The  Colony  System. — Under  certain  conditions,  one  of  which 
is  referred  to  in  the  next  paragraph,  it  is  often  felt  undesirable 
to  scatter  fowls  all  over  a  farm.  That  may  be  a  question  of 
labour  or  of  convenience.  What  is  meant  by  the  colony  sj^stem 
is  that  a  portion  of  the  land  is  thickly  occupied  by  fowls  for 
twelve  months,  when  they  are  transferred  to  another  portion  of 
the  farm,  and  that  vacated  is  cultivated  or  cropped  in  the  usual 
manner,  decided  by  whether  it  is  arable  or  pasture.  I  first  saw 
this  system  operated  upon  a  large  scale  in  the  Little  Compton 
district  of  the  State  of  Rhode  Island,  U.S.A.,  where  it  has  been 
carried  out  for  a  couple  of  generations.  In  my  "  Report  on  the 
Poultry  Industry  in  America,"  it  is  stated*  that  "  within  half  a 
dozen  miles  of  Little  Compton  in  every  direction  there  are  scores 
of  farms  where  poidtry  are  kept  and  raised  in  large  numbers. 
Hundreds  of  poultry  houses  can  be  seen  in  the  course  of  a  mile 
or  so,  and  it  is  estimated  that  half  a  million  hens  are  kept  within 
that  radius.  .  .  .  The  methods  adopted  and  the  houses  used 
are  wonderfully  uniform,  almost  monotonous.  But  these  afford 
an  example  of  what  can  be  done  in  practical  poultry-keeping 
over  a  long  period  of  time,  for  the  section  has  been  strong  in 
poultry  for  sixty  years,  though  the  increased  production  has 
been  most  marked  within  the  last  two  decades."  The  farms  are 
usually  from  60  to  120  acres  in  extent,  comprising  both  pa,'  ture 
and  arable  land.  On  the  former  stock  are  fed  or  the  fields 
cropped  for  hay,  and  grain  is  grown  on  the  latter.  As  an  example 
of  what  is  done  successfully,  on  Mr.  F.  Almy's  farm  of  120  acres 
at  the  place  named,  1,800  laying  hens  were  kept  at  the  time  of 
my  visit,  and  3,000  chickens  had  been  reared  that  year.  Forty- 
*  London,  1906,  p.  41. 


18  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

five  acres  were  in  use  for  the  poultry,  and  the  rest  under  crops. 
Another  farm  in  the  same  township,  owned  by  INIr.  W.  N.  Sissons, 
was  of  65  acres,  whereon  were  1,500  laying  hens.  Of  this  system 
more  is  said  as  to  detail  in  Chapter  VIII. 

Fox  Preservation. — There  can  be  no  question  that  the  pres- 
ervation of  foxes  for  hunting  purposes  has  had  a  most  repressive 
effect  upon  poultry  husbandry.  Frequently  I  have  been  in- 
formed by  farmers,  when  advocating  greater  attention  to  poultry, 
that  the  loss  would  be  so  great,  and  the  bad  feeling  engendered 
so  considerable,  that  they  did  not  think  it  worth  their  while  to 
run  the  risk  of  one  or  the  other.  In  other  instances,  not  a  few  of 
those  who  have  made  the  attempt  have  had  constant  and  serious 
losses  in  this  way,  without  any  compensation  at  all,  or  receiving 
but  a  moiety  of  what  they  claimed,  and  even  then  given  in  a 
grudging  fashion.  The  actual  loss  everj^  year  must  amount  to 
a  very  substantial  sum.  That,  however,  is  infinitesimal  as  com- 
pared with  the  check  to  increase  of  the  industry  which  would 
otherwise  have  taken  place,  to  the  great  benefit  of  rural  residents 
and  the  nation  at  large.  A  prominent  Cheshire  farmer  recently 
stated  that  the  number  of  poultry  on  farms  could  be  trebled 
without  material  increase  of  cost  were  it  not  for  foxes.  It  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  a  few  of  the  hunts  meet  claims  made  upon 
them  promptly  and  with  a  moderate  amount  of  fairness.  That, 
unfortunately,  is  the  exception.  The  larger  number  pay  upon 
a  totally  inadequate  scale,  far  below  the  real  value,  and  after 
delays  which  are  very  annojang.  Some  there  are  which  go  even 
beyond  this.  They  have  refused  claims  made  altogether,  or  only 
pay  those  sent  in  by  farmers  over  whose  land  they  hunt.  As  a 
result,  a  great  amount  of  bitterness  has  been  engendered,  and 
strong  action  taken  on  the  part  of  such  as  have  suffered  in  this 
way,  which  will  assuredly  increase  unless  those  for  whose  pleasure 
foxes  are  preserved  are  willing  to  pay  proved  claims  for  poultry 
killed,  and  to  the  full  extent  of  the  loss  incun-ed.  If  hunting 
men  are  unable  to  do  this,  their  sport  is  assuredly  doomed.  Few 
there  are  who  desire  to  see  that  take  place,  but  the  tendencies 
are  all  in  this  direction.  Should  the  time  unhappily  arrive  when 
the  problem  of  fox-hunting  versus  poultry  husbandry  has  to  be 
decided — that  is,  the  interests  of  the  few  or  the  many — there  can 
be  no  question  the  last-named  must  come  first,  in  view  of  the 
natioaal  food-supply.  Hunting  men  will  only  have  to  thank 
themselves  for  the  result.  It  must  be  remembered  that  this 
sport  can  alone,  in  a  thickly-populated  country,  be  enjoyed  on 
sufferance.  Anything  which  gives  the  sense  of  unfaii-  treatment 
is  bound  to  end  such  a  privilege.     A  large  number  of  foxes  have 


THE  LINES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  2] 

been  killed,  and  the  number  will  increase.  They  are  vermin,  and 
it  is  within  the  right  of  anyone  to  destroy  them  as  a  nuisance 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  bring  about  an  understanding  with 
hunts,  but  these  have  largely  failed,  owing  to  the  attitude  of 
these  bodies.  Poultrymen  have  suffered  much  in  the  past,  and 
their  patience  is  wellnigh  exhausted.  Larger  farmers  may 
regard  the  loss  of  their  wives'  poultry  with  equanimity,  but  it 
is  a  matter  of  life  and  death  to  small  farmers  and  allotment 
holders.  It  is  stated,  with  every  appearance  of  truth,  that  were 
the  cubs  properly  fed  in  the  rearing  season,  and  the  grown  animals 
in  winter,  much  of  the  difficulty  would  be  removed.  If  that  be 
so,  the  blame  lies  wholly  at  the  door  of  those  responsible  for 
preservation.  A  further  point  is  that  independent  men  who 
make  claims  receive  a  full  and  prompt  settlement,  whilst  those 
to  whom  the  loss  is  really  of  serious  moment  are  refused,  or 
.offered  inadequate  compensation.  That  gives  a  sense  of  wronj 
which  makes  for  bitterness  and  retaliation. 

Poultry  in  Orchards. — It  is  now  many  years  since  I  first 
called  attention  to  the  value  of  poultry  on  the  vinej-ards  of 
South-Western  France,  as  well  as  in  the  orchards  of  Normandy, 
where  fowls  are  not  alone  found  profitable,  but  render  great 
service  in  destruction  of  parasitic  life  which  preys  upon  the 
bushes,  trees,  and  vines.  To  some  extent  there  has  been  develop- 
ment in  this  direction  since  that  time,  but  to  a  very  limited  degree. 
1  find  from  the  agricultural  returns  that  in  1912  there  were 
upwards  of  320,000  acres  under  fruit  in  England  and  Wales, 
which  ought  to  maintain  fowls  to  an  average  of  at  least  five 
adult  fowls  per  acre;  and  the  same  might  be  said  of  hops,  of 
which  there  were  upwards  of  34,000  acres.  How  many  are  now 
maintained  it  is  impossible  to  surmise. 

One  example  of  what  might  be  duplicated  throughout  the 
fruit-growing  districts  is  that  of  the  farms  owned  by  the  Messrs. 
John  Chi  vers  and  Sons,  of  Histon  in  Cambridgeshire,  which  firm 
has  1,000  acres  under  fruit  grown  for  the  purpose  of  jam-making. 
Upon  these  they  are  maintaining  about  5,000  laying  hens,  the 
eggs  from  which  are  mainh'  utilized  in  the  factory.  The  prin- 
ciple adopted  is  to  place  the  houses  for  adult  fowls,  whether 
layers  or  breeding  stock,  and  also  the  chickens  in  coops  and 
brooders,  in  the  orchards,  giving  them  free  range.  The  same  is 
done  on  the  strawberry-beds  at  certain  periods  of  the  year.  No 
wire  netting  is  used.  Thus  the  conditions  are  essentially  natural, 
extensive,  not  intensive.  The  result  is  that  everything  is 
favourable  in  the  extreme.  So  abundant  is  the  food  obtainable 
that  the  cost  is  reduced  to  a  minimum ,  and  the  manager  informed 


22 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


me  they  could  scarcely  give  the  birds  little  enough,  as  they  could 
practically  obtain  as  much  as  they  required — that  is,  the  older 
birds.  During  the  early  stages,  such  would  not  apply  to  chickens. 
It  means  that  what  would  be  wasted  is  thus  utilized,  and  the 
food  cost,  which  is  ever  the  greatest,  is  very  low  indeed.  Such 
must  profoundly  afiEect  the  financial  result. 


Fig.  1.— Poultry  in  Orchards. 


Destruction  of  Parasites. — This  is  not  all  the  benefit  derived, 
although  of  considerable  importance.  Apart  from  all  other  con- 
siderations, fowls  render  a  great  service  in  checking  the  increase 
of  parasites,  which  multiply  enormously  and  are  very  destruc- 
tive where  cultivation  is  carried  out  on  intensive  lines.  Svich 
has  been  the  experience  of  the  Messrs.  Chi  vers,  as  of  other  fruit- 
growers, causing  considerable  loss.  The  fowls  have  rendered 
very  great  service  in  this  direction.  As  proof  of  what  is  here 
stated,  experience  has  shown  that  on  the  larger  fruit-trees  com- 
monly attacked  by  the  winter  moth,  it  was  a  usual  thing  to  find 
fifteen  to  twenty  moths  on  the  grease-bands.  Where  fowls  are 
in  the  orchards  these  are  almost  entirely  cleared,  and  if  any 
can  b(^  traced,  they  do  not  at  most  exceed  one  or  two.      It  is 


THE  LINES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  28 

well  known  that  land  planted  with  strawberries  following  wheat 
is  often  devastated  A\ith  the  crane-fly.  The  effect  of  allowing 
fowls  access  thereto  prior  to  the  fruit-farming  has  been  to  prac- 
tically clear  them  of  that  pest,  confirming  evidence  which  was 
given  to  me  in  America.  The  raspberry  beetle  is  very  destruc- 
tive to  that  fruit,  and  by  eating  into  the  buds  causes  great  loss. 
As  many  as  thirteen  have  been  discerned  on  a  single  head. 
These  pests  go  down  the  vines  in  the  afternoons  or  on  the  ap- 
proach of  stormy  weather,  when  the  fowls,  if  given  the  oppof- 
tunity,  devour  them.  On  the  29  acres  at  Histon  devoted  to 
raspberries,  the  beetle  has  been  cleared  by  the  fowls,  to  the 
great  gain  of  the  owners.  And,  finally,  there  has  been  no  saw- 
fly  caterpillar  on  the  gooseberry  bushes  where  fowls  have  been 
run. 

Manurial  Influence  of  Fowls. — So  far  as  agriculturists  are 
concerned,  there  is  a  further  benefit  from  extensive  methods  of 
poultry-keeping — namely,  the  manurial  influence,  when  produc- 
tion is  not  beyond  the  power  of  the  soil  to  utilize.  In  Chapter  I. 
an  estimate  is  given  as  to  what  would  be  the  total  value  of  fer- 
tilizing elements  were  the  farms  of  the  United  Kingdom  ade- 
quately stocked  with  poultry.  An  example  of  what  has  already 
been  accomplished  is  found  in  one  section  of  Belgium  with  which 
I  am  well  acquainted.  Belgian  occupiers  realize  the  value  of 
manure,  of  which  not  a  drop  or  particle  seems  to  be  wasted.  It 
is  freely  acknowledged  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  has  been 
raised  considerably  by  the  keeping  of  fowls  and  ducks.  The 
most  noticeable  instance  is  met  with  in  what  is  known  as  the 
Campine  district,  which  extends  from  the  city  of  Malines  east 
and  north  to  the  Dutch  frontier.  At  one  period  this  was  an 
arid  sandy  plain,  covered  with  fir-trees  and  incapable  of  cultiva- 
tion. Some  of  it  remains  in  the  same  condition,  but  consider- 
able portions  have  been  brought  into  use  as  market -gardens. 
The  story  is  deeply  interesting  and  highly  suggestive.  About 
forty  years  ago  poultrj^-breeding  was  taken  up  by  the  peasants 
in  this  district  on  a  somewhat  extensive  scale,  primarily  with 
the  object  of  raising  chickens  for  sale  to  the  fatteners  on  the 
other  side  of  Malines.  The  land  was  of  little  use  for  other  pur- 
poses, and,  although  there  was  not  much  natural  food  for  the 
fowls  in  the  soil,  it  was  dry,  the  fir-trees  provided  abundant 
shelter  during  the  hot  daj^s  of  summer,  and 'a"mo derate  amount 
of  insect  life  was  obtainable.  Eggs,  also,  were  and  are  pro- 
duced in  large  quantities  throughout  this  district,  though  on 
such  soil  they  are  smaller  in  size  and  inferior  in  quality  to  those 
from  hens  kept  on  the  richer  lands.     In  the  summer  of  1897  I 


24  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

paid  a  visit  to  the  district.  Already  a  very  marked  change  had 
taken  place.  The  land  near  to  Malines  had  been  so  enriched  by 
manure  from  the  ponltrj'  that  it  was  xmder  cultivation.  For  a 
distance  of  about  five  miles  from  that  city  the  trees  were  cleared, 
and  market -gardens  for  production  of  asparagus  and  vegetables 
formed  upon  the  old  woodlands.  At  that  time  it  was  freely 
acknowledged  this  result  was  largely  due  to  the  fowls,  which 
were  being  bred  in  gi-eater  numbers  all  over  the  Campine  country. 

I  was  not,  however,  prepared  for  the  developments  which  had 
taken  place  twelve  years  later,  when  the  district  was  again 
visited.  At  the  earlier  period  I  drove  to  Rymenam,  Keerbergen, 
Piitte,  and  Grasheide,  through  the  fir-woods,  in  which  were  cot- 
tages of  a  very  humble  type,  attached  to  each  of  which  were 
about  12  hectares  (nearly  30  acres)  of  land,  with  very  small 
clearances  aroimd  the  dwellings,  little  more  than  gardens.  The 
people  depended  chiefly  upon  poultrj^-rearing  for  their  incomes. 
At  one  place  visited — a  small  inn — I  was  told  that  the  owner  had 
already  by  the  month  of  June  sold  350  birds,  and  had  400  more 
for  disposal.  In  the  previous  year  his  sales  of  poultr}^  amounted 
to  4,000  francs  (£160).  At  Grasheide  I  found  a  school-house  in 
the  midst  of  fir-woocls,  which  came  right  up  to  the  buildings  on 
all  sides.  The  teacher,  M.  Vanden  Borchacht,  reared  about 
4,000  chickens  every  year.  By  1909  the  whole  aspect  was 
altered.  As  we  drove  in  the  month  of  October  to  the  places 
named,  it  was  to  find  the  fir-trees  gone  and  the  land  under 
cultivation.  Market-gardens,  grain,  and  roots,  have  taken  the 
place  of  fir-woods,  owing  to  the  improved  fertility  of  the  soil  as 
a  result  of  poultry  kept  thereon  during  a  single  generation. 
After  the  trees  are  removed  it  takes  about  two  years  to  bring 
the  ground  into  good  condition,  and,  of  course,  it  is  capable  of 
further  improvement.*  Unfortunately,  as  shown  below,  pros- 
perity has  led  to  intensification,  by  which  the  manure  became 
excessive.  That,  however,  does  not  affect  what  is  here  set  forth 
as  to  the  value  of  fowls  for  improvement  and  fertilization  of  the 
land.  And  in  respect  to  uncultivated  areas,  this  aspect  of  the 
case  is  supremely  important.  Some  further  evidence  is  given  in 
Chapter  XVII. 

Running  Fowls. — Originating  in  the  North  of  England,  so  far 
as  commercial  poultry  is  concerned,  a  system  has  been  adopted 
which  is  capable  of  \sdde  extension,  though  specially  suited  to 
combined  agricultural  and  industrial  areas,  such  as  the  manu- 
facturing   villages    of    East    Lancashire    and    West    Yorkshire. 

*  Vide  "  Report  on  the  Poultry  Industry  in  Belgium,"  by  Edward  Brown, 
F.L.S.,  London,  1910,  pp.  14  and  15. 


THE  LINES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  25 

Arrangements  are  made  between  the  poultry -keepers,  who  are 
usually  operatives,  and  farmers,  for  the  former  to  place  poultry 
houses  out  iipon  the  farmers'  fields,  and  to  maintain  an  agreed 
number  of  fowls  thereon.  The  advantages  of  this  system  will 
be  apparent  in  that,  not  only  does  the  farmer  receive  rental  for 
the  land  over  which  the  fowls  are  permitted  to  run,  but  also  he 
insures  for  his  land  in  a  very  cheap  way  a  considerable  quantity 
of  manure,  thus  imjjroving  the  value  of  his  crops ;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  poultry-keeper,  who  is  usually  landless  or  has 
only  a  small  allotment,  is  enabled  by  the  system  here  described 
to  keep  a  very  much  larger  stock  of  fowls  at  less  risk  than  if  he 
were  obliged  to  rent  the  land.  The  method  is  more  suitable  for 
grazing  counties  than  where  arable  lands  prevail.  There  is  no 
reason,  however,  why  in  every  grazing  district  the  plan  might 
not  be  followed,  and  it  would  probably  have  wide-reaching  in- 
fluences if  properly  carried  out,  in  that,  ajiart  from  the  immediate 
benefit  derived,  it  would  give  opportunities  to  cottagers  for 
keeping  poultry  and  improving  their  position. 

To  carry  out  this  system,  arrangements  should  be  clearly 
defined.  The  poultry-keeper  must  move  his  houses  about  in 
accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  farmei-,  for  if  a  house  were 
allowed  to  stand  too  long  in  one  place  the  herbage  around  would 
be  injured  or  destroyed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  farmer  must 
give  access  to  his  fields,  which  occasionally  involves  trouble. 
With  mutual  desire,  however,  to  meet  each  other  these  difficulties 
can  be  overcome,  and  it  is  foimd,  from  the  fact  that  the  system 
is  increasing,  though  somewhat  slowly,  that  the  advantages  of 
this  sj^stem  are  receiving  recognition.  Under  these  conditions 
portable  houses  are  preferable,  in  that  the  manure  is  more  evenly 
distributed,  and  all  danger  of  tainted  soil  is  obviated,  whilst  the 
supply  of  natural  food  will  be  more  abundant.  As  a  rule  the 
number  of  fowls  should  not  exceed  ten  per  acre  on  the  land 
actually  occupied.  The  rent  charged  is  usually  6d.  per  bird,  or 
10s.  per  flock  of  twenty-five,  per  annum. 

Utilization  of  Waste  Lands. — In  the  United  Kingdom  are  nearly 
30,000,000  acres  of  land  not  under  cultivation,  divided  as  follows : 


Under  Cultiva-      Not  Cultivated 
tion  (Acres).               (Acres). 

Total  Land 
(Acres). 

England          

Wales              

Scotland          

Ireland            

24,414,493           7,979,717 
2,760,197            1,989,454 
4,821,334          14,249,132 

14,673,778           5,573,419 

32,394,210 

4,749,651 

19,070,466 

20,247,197 

Totals 

46,669,802     ,     29,791,722 

76,461,524 

26  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

These  figures  do  not  include  the  Isle  of  Man  and  Channel  Islands. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  uncultivated  land  consists  of  moun- 
tains and  bogs,  which  could  not  be  used  in  any  way.  Among 
the  remainder,  rough  grazings  form  a  large  part.  In  England 
and  Wales  these  comprise  3,774,655  acres,  or  nearly  half.  In 
Scotland  the  proportion  woiild  be  much  larger.  Probably  there 
are  in  the  four  countries  10,000,000  acres  that  could  be  used  for 
poultry,  which  would  contribute  materially,  as  in  the  Campine 
country  (see  above  under  Manurial  Influence)  to  their  im- 
provement. I  am  convinced  that  there  is  a  great  future  in  this 
direction.  The  breeding  of  all  classes  of  poultry  might  be 
developed  thereon,  not  alone  for  production  of  eggs  and  of  flesh, 
but  also  the  hatching  and  rearing  of  stock  birds  raised  under 
conditions  that  would  make  for  constitutional  vigour,  and,  if 
sold  to  farmers  and  others  living  within  the  cultivated  areas, 
would  do  much  to  counticract  the  tendencies  towards  degenera- 
tion which  mark  our  present  methods.  Pullets  might  be  bred 
and  sold  in  this  way  at  five  to  six  months  old,  to  be  replaced  by 
others  annually  or  every  second  year.  As  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion would  be  small,  the  prices  at  which  they  could  be  sold 
would  encourage  a  large  and  profitable  trade  to  all  concerned. 
Some  areas  would  be  excellent  for  ducks  and  geese,  and  scores 
of  thousands  of  turkeys  might  be  bred  on  the  dryer  hill-lands,  to 
be  sold  off  for  fattening  in  the  autumn. 

Specialized  Poultry  Industries. — There  are  several  branches  of 
poultry  husbandry  in  which  there  is  a  large  measure  of  specializa- 
tion, in  that  these  are  general  over  given  areas,  and  that  the 
methods  adopted  cannot  be  followed  by  ordinary  farmers  who 
do  not  make  poultry-breeding  one  of  their  leading  objects. 
These  include  the  breeding,  rearing,  and  preparation  for  market, 
of  chickens,  ducklings,  goslings,  and  turkeys,  all  of  which  are 
treated  fully  in  the  respective  chapters.  As  a  rule  turkeys  are 
kept  all  their  natural  life  on  the  place  where  they  are  hatched; 
therefore  that  branch  is  self-contained.  Such  is  not  the  case 
with  chickens — at  least,  where  the  finest  specimens  of  market 
birds  are  produced.  The  finishing  process,  known  as  fattening, 
is  distinct  from  that  of  hatching  and  rearing.  With  regard  to 
ducklings,  those  who  keep  the  breeding  stock  sell  eggs  to  men 
who  specialize  in  hatching,  rearing,  and  fattening.  Whilst  with 
goslings,  though  that  business  is  less  than  was  at  one  time  the 
case,  the  rearing  and  final  fattening  are  usually  in  distinct  hands, 
and  carried  out  under  totally  different  conditions.  Duahsm  in 
this  way  has  many  advantages,  distributing  the  earnings  and 
preventing  concentration  and  monopoly.     A  further  point  is,  in 


THE  LINES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  27 

every  branch  of  table  poultry,  that  the  climatic  and  soil  condi- 
tions must  be  favourable,  iipon  which  more  is  said  below.  Within 
these  limitations  the  country  as  a  whole  has  possibilities  of  great 
development.  In  this  direction  also  there  is  a  great  opportunity 
for  production  of  large  fowls  for  sale  in  the  winter  months,  on 
similar  lines  to  what  is  done  in  America  and  Belgium,  as  also  of 
milk  chickens. 

District  Poultry  Industries. — Several  branches  of  poultry-keep- 
ing have  attained  their  greatest  development  as  a  result  of 
general  adoption  over  a  given  area,  which  are  small  or  large  in 
accordance  with  local  conditions.  That  is  specifically  the  case 
with  the  production  of  table  poultry,  whether  in  this  or  other 
countries.  The  evidences  are  that  the  success  attained  is  largely 
dependent  upon  such  being  the  system  adopted.  In  connection 
with  egg  production  the  same  is  not  necessary  to  an  equal 
extent.  That  branch  is  of  more  universal  application  to  the 
farming  of  any  section  of  the  country,  whether  it  be  near  to  or 
remote  from  the  consuming  centres.  It  is  for  this  reason  we 
find  poultry-keeping  with  a  view  to  eggs  met  with  in  almost 
every  county.  It  is  also  true  that  the  demand  for  eggs  would 
appear  to  have  grown  much  more  rapidh^  than  that  for  chickens 
and  other  classes  of  poultr}-,  which  remain  a  luxurj^  to  the  greater 
number  of  our  people,  whereas  eggs  form  a  part  of  the  food  in  all 
but  the  poorest  households. 

The  advantages  of  laniformity  in  production  are  very  great, 
and  conducive  to  success.    These  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 

1.  Reputation  counts  for  much  in  all  departments  of  trading, 
and  in  itself  generally  is  creative  of  demand. 

2.  The  force  of  example  and  the  influence  of  competition  are 
powerful  factors,  doing  much  to  improve  and  maintain  the 
quahtj^  of  any  product. 

3.  Specialized  work,  such  as  fattening  poultry,  requires  skilled 
operators,  and  the  work  must  be  done  on  a  scale  to  afford  these 
men  adequate  rewards. 

4.  Wliere  production  throughout  a  district  is  general,  the  sale 
is  greatly  simplified,  whether  that  is  by  means  of  co-operation  or 
through  the  ordinary  trade  channels.  Uncertainty  and  irregu- 
larity account  for  much  loss  and  many  failures.  Unless  the 
produce  of  any  district  is  voluminous  enough  to  make  handlmg 
profitable,  prices  must  be  low,  bj^  reason  of  the  fact  that  the 
relative  expenses  are  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  quantity. 

5.  Under  the  conditions  here  set  forth,  good  quality  produces 
much  better  returns  as  a  result  of  the  reputation  already  referred 
to,  provided  that  a  reasonably  adequate  supply  is  available. 


28  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Poultry  Farming. — In  these  days  of  huge  enterprises,  of  com- 
binations and  trusts,  the  idea  of  l)ig  poultry  farms,  where  laying 
hens  could  be  kept  by  the  thousand,  where  eggs  could  be  pro- 
duced by  the  hmidreds  of  thousands,  or  chickens  turned  out  by 
the  gross  every  daj'  when  thej'  are  most  in  demand,  has  fascin- 
ated many  minds.  Flaming  accounts  have  been  published  of 
such  enterprises,  generally  when  only  partially  in  being,  expres- 
sive of  the  hopes  rather  than  the  accomplishments  of  the  pro- 
moters. For  sixty  years  attempts  have  been  made  in  that  direc- 
tion, but  without  exception,  save  in  duck-farming,  these  have 
failed  purely  as  a  market  j)roposition,  mainty  because  livestock 
do  not  lend  themselves  to  "  factorj^  "  methods.  Or,  as  Dr. 
Raymond  Pearl  has  wisely  said :  "  Chickens  are  not  machines ; 
they  are  living  creatures.  A  poultry  plant  is  not  a  factory.  It 
partakes  much  more  of  the  nature  of  a  girls'  boarding-school, 
with  a  strong  leaning  on  the  part  of  its  inhabitants  towards 
suffragette  doctrines."  The  expenses  are  too  great  for  the 
returns.  If  establishments  like  these  could  be  made  a  com- 
mercial success,  a  new  development  of  poultry  husbandry  would 
present  itself,  and  the  provision  of  a  more  regular  supply  of  eggs 
and  chickens  would  be  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  nation  at 
large  as  well  as  the  indivichials  concerned.  The  fact,  however, 
is  that  no  one  of  these  poultry  farms  which  restricted  itself  to 
supplying  the  market  with  eggs  and  poultry  for  consumption 
has  ever  been  permanently  successful.  I  have  visited  many 
such,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  with  the  result  stated. 

The  Place  of  Poultry  Farms. — Those  which  have  succeeded 
have  done  so  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  their  largest  source  of 
income  has  been  b}^  sale  of  stock  birds,  eggs  for  hatching, 
day-old  chicks,  etc.  Of  these  there  are  a  goodly  number  in 
Britain,  and  the  owners  in  some  cases  have  made  handsome 
competencies.  It  is  unnecessary  to  name  them,  as  their  ad- 
vertisements are  to  be  found  in  all  poultry  publications.  The 
fact  is  these  are  poultry-breeding  farms,  holding  a  similar  rela- 
tionship to  food-producers  as  do  the  seedsmen  to  farmers,  or 
the  nurserymen  to  fruit-growers.  That  they  contribute  eggs 
and  poultry  for  food  to  some  extent  is  true,  yet  the  output 
is  a  surplus.  As  an  example,  at  one  of  the  most  heralded 
American  poultry  plants,  which  some  time  ago  published  a 
balance-sheet,  out  of  a  total  sale  in  one  year  equal  to  $27,000, 
more  than  half  the  returns — in  fact,  nearly  55  per  cent. — were 
for  other  than  market  supplies.  In  other  cases  the  percentage 
has  been  much  greater. 

Here  we  see  what  is  the  true  place  of  special  poultry  farms. 


THE  LINES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  29 

or,  to  use  a  better  term,  breeding  or  stock  farms.  That  they  are 
necessary  and  occupy  an  important  position  is  unquestionable. 
Theu'  success,  however,  depends  ahnost  entirely  upon  develop- 
ment of  a  trade  in  stock  birds,  eggs  for  hatching,  and  day-old 
chicks,  by  means  of  which  they  serve  a  valuable  purpose  in 
su|)plying  a  higher  type  of  birds,  directly  or  indirectly,  giving 
that  attention  to  improvement  of  the  stock  which  can  scarcely 
be  undertaken  by  the  farmer  or  ordinary  poultry-keeper,  who  is 
willing  to  pay  a  good  price  for  what  they  have  to  sell.  Such  is 
entirely  different  from  breeding  for  exhibition,  as  the  main 
object  is  a  higher  standard  of  i^roductiveness.  Every  encourage- 
ment should  be  given  to  those  who  desire  to  undertake  what  is 
an  important  contribution  to  the  general  well-being.  At  the 
same  time  it  must  be  realized  that  those  who  enter  upon  such  a 
pursuit  must  have  special  qualifications,  and  plan  their  opera- 
tions to  meet  demand  in  the  directions  indicated.  Further, 
where  the  work  is  to  be  a  means  of  livelihood  it  must  be  upon  a 
sufficiently  generous  scale  to  yield  an  adequate  return.  What 
we  want  to  see  is  the  increase  of  these  breeding  farms,  concur- 
rently with  that  of  commercial  poultry  husbandry,  throughout 
the  country,  in  which  direction  there  is  abundance  of  scope,  so 
long  as  the  true  basis  is  recognized. 

Breeding  Centres. — It  was,  I  believe,  my  own  suggestion  which 
led  to  establishment  of  the  first  breeding  centres  in  Ireland. 
That  was  in  1889.  The  object  was,  in  an  impoverished  country 
where  there  were  few  places  that  good  utility  stock  was  produced, 
and,  moreover,  the  people  whom  they  were  destined  to  serve 
could  not  afford  commercial  prices  for  such  stock  or  eggs  for 
hatching,  to  supply  reliable  stock  or  eggs  for  hatching  at  a  cheap 
rate.  Hence,  unless  some  such  system  were  adopted,  that  im- 
provement of  the  various  classes  of  poultry,  which  was  of  vital 
necessity  if  any  progress  were  to  be  made,  was  impossible.  The 
influence  has  been  enormous.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the 
great  advance  made  in  actual  production  has  been  largely  influ- 
enced by  these  stations.  Those  who  are  able  to  compare  the 
class  of  poultry  seen  over  the  greater  part  of  Ireland  in,  say, 
1890,  with  what  now  prevails,  will  be  able  to  realize  how  great 
the  change  has  been.  The  system  here  referred  to  has  been 
adopted  in  Denmark,  Germany,  Holland,  Russia,  and  Sweden, 
and  is  now  being  extended  rapidly  in  Scotland.  Where  by  im- 
poverishment of  people  from  any  cause  it  is  found  desirable  to 
expend  public  money  for  their  uplifting,  the  establishment  of 
such  centres  is  fully  justified.  I  found  in  Germany  that  some- 
thing like  3,000  of  these  subsidized  centres  have  been  formed,  as 


30  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

a  result  of  which  private  enterj)rise  is  subjected  to  a  competition 
which  cannot  be  met,  for  the  reason  that  the  prices  charged  for 
stock,  eggs,  etc.,  are  unprofitable.  To  some  extent  this  is  com- 
pensated b}'  the  premiums  granted,  but  not  wholly  so.  Later 
observations  in  Holland  have  revealed  a  like  result.  In  this 
connection  it  should  be  remembered  that  in  nearly  every  section 
of  Britain  south  of  the  Grampians  there  have  been  and  are  a 
large  number  of  private  poultry-breeders,  who  have  taken  a 
great  share  in  the  improvement  of  economic  races  of  domestic 
poultry,  before  public  authorities  came  into  it,  the  destruction 
of  whose  businesses  would  be  an  act  of  injustice. 

Day-Old  Chick  Trade. — One  of  the  most  remarkable  develop- 
ments of  recent  years  has  been  the  rapid  growth  of  a  trade  in 
day -old  or  baby  chicks.  Although  the  purchasing  of  eggs  for 
hatching  is  still  a  huge  business,  yet  it  is  often  very  unsatisfac- 
tory both  to  the  vendor  and  bu3^er.  The  latter  merely  obtains 
for  a  money  payment  the  possibility  of  getting  a  batch  of  chicks, 
and  is  apt  to  be  disappointed  if  the  result  is  not  what  he  ex- 
pected. The  business  also  lends  itself  to  chicanery  and  trickery 
on  both  sides.  As  a  result  complaints  are  rife.  About  the  year 
1895,  when  on  a  visit  to  France,  I  found  two  establishments  at 
which  a  large  business  was  being  done  in  the  sale  of  newly- 
hatched  chicks,  which  were  found  to  be  able  to  stand  a  long 
journey  without  apparently  suffering  therefrom.  That  example 
was  speedily  tested,  and  has  grown  greatly,  so  much  so  that 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  these  birds  are  sold  every  season.  The 
purchaser  pays  a  little  more  for  what  he  buys,  but  receives  live 
birds,  not  eggs.  More  information  in  detail  is  given  in  a  later 
chapter.  That  the  business  is  capable  of  great  extension  cannot 
be  doubted.  There  are,  however,  dangers  which  require  to  be 
avoided.  Too  often  those  who  undertake  the  work  of  hatching, 
in  their  desire  to  obtain  early  eggs  in  order  to  keep  their  in- 
cubators full  and  meet  the  demand  for  birds,  do  not  pay  suffi- 
cient attention  to  the  age  and  constitutional  vigour  of  the  breed- 
ing stock,  often  obtaining  eggs  from  immature  fowls  kept  under 
bad  conditions,  with  the  result  that  there  is  degeneracy  in  the 
progeny.  This  practice  may  do  much  harm,  and  has  aheady 
done  so.  It  is  not  enough  to  send  out  chickens  that  will  arrive 
safely. 

Intensified  Methods. — That  the  future  will  see  a  great  increase 
of  int-ensification  in  poultry  husbandry  is  evident.  In  fact,  such 
must  be  true  if  the  needs  of  a  rapidly  growuig  population  are  to 
be  provided  for      That  can  only  be  successfully  accomplished  if 


THE  LINES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  31 

the  balance  of  Nature  is  maintained  between  animal  and  plant 
life.  It  is,  unfortunately,  true  that  many  of  the  "  bird-cage  " 
methods  which  have  been  advocated  carry  the  seeds  of  their 
own  destruction.  We  could  ignore  the  extravagant  claims  put 
forth  if  it  were  not  that  many  people  are  misled,  and  venture 
their  all  in  this  way.  Were  half  the  statements  true,  the  rest 
might  be  forgiven.  The  disproportion,  however,  between  fact 
and  fiction  is  very  wide.  These  abnormal  and  unnatural  methods 
are  suited  for  backyard  poultry-keepers  whose  space  is  very 
limited,  and  as  a  supplemental  pursuit  or  a  hobby  to  meet  the 
needs  of  their  own  households,  provided  that  the  closest  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  management  in  every  way  by  giving  the  birds  as 
much  exercise  as  possible,  and  renewing  the  stock  every  one  or 
two  years,  not  attempting  to  breed  from  birds  kept  under  these 
conditions.  One  reason  why  so  many  artisans  take  up  poultry- 
keeping  is  to  supply  the  requirements  of  their  households. 
Beyond  that  is  a  desire  to  have  an  alternative,  if  only  a  partial, 
source  of  income  in  case  of  loss  of  work  or  other  causes.  As  a 
means  of  livelihood  it  cannot  be  admitted  that  the  system  may 
be  conducted  on  a  large  scale.  Apart  from  the  cost  of  equip- 
ment and  labour,  there  are  other  considerations.  Experience  in 
America  and  Belgium  show  that  degeneracy  leads  to  disease  and 
loss.  That  is  not  the  way  to  build  up  a  profitable  and  permanent 
industry. 

Effect  on  the  Stock. — In  this  connection  a  very  serious  condi- 
tion of  affairs  has  to  be  faced — namely,  the  effect  of  continued 
breeding  under  highly  intensified  conditions  upon  the  vigour  of 
the  stock.  The  claim  has  been  made  that  to  succeed  intensively 
it  is  necessary  to  buy  stock  from  birds  which  for  generations 
have  been  bred  in  that  manner.  That  is  the  way  of  failure,  and 
explains  in  part  the  high  average  of  mortality  among  chickens 
bred  and  raised  on  intensive  lines,  in  which  many  poultry  farms 
must  be  included,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  and  of  which  the 
disastrous  epidemic  in  Belgium  in  1912  and  1913  is  an  example. 
What  seems  evident  is  that  it  will  get  worse,  and  not  better,  until 
the  true  facts  of  the  case  are  realized.  In  certain  directions  we 
can  intensify  methods  up  to  a  given  point.  For  instance,  laying 
hens  can  be  so  kept  and  profitably.  They  are  usually  more 
productive  than  upon  farms.  So  long  as  they  are  not  bred  from, 
and  are  killed  off  when  their  work  is  done,  no  harm  results.  Table 
chickens  and  ducklings  may  also  be  profitably  forced  for  early 
maturity.  In  neither  case  is  there  any  question  of  transmission 
of  influence.  What  has  to  be  kept  in  view  is  that — although 
during  the  infantile  stages  chickens  may  be  reared    on  fairly 


32  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

intensive  lines,  and  such  niaj'^  be  continued  if  they  are  destined 
to  an  early  death,  also  that  laying  hens  may  be  kept  thickly 
together — it  is  of  supreme  importance  that  breeding  stock  shall 
have  sufficient  range,  affording  them  opportiniities  of  abundant 
exercise,  together  with  hygienic  conditions  and  natural  food,  so 
as  to  make  for  constitutional  vigour  which  will  be  transmittible 
to  their  progeny.  And,  further,  it  is  essential  that  chickens 
during  the  adolescent  period  of  development  shall  have  plenty  of 
space  if  they  are  destined  to  be  breeders  or  layers. 

AVhat  is  necessary,  therefore,  is  that,  for  the  permanent  suc- 
cess of  intensive  methods,  the  breeding  stock  must  be  on  range, 
and  that  those  chickens  which  are  to  be  reared  to  adulthood  shall 
be  given  an  abundance  of  space  during  the  post-infantile  period 
of  growth.  Such  imposes  a  restriction  which  is  unavoidable 
and  must  be  recognized. 

Bantams.— There  is  one  branch  of  poultry  husbandry,  for  in 
such  may  be  included  provision  for  household  needs,  which  in 
this  country  has  not  received  attention — namely,  the  keeping  of 
bantam  fowls  for  the  sake  of  their  eggs  and  flesh.  Hitherto  they 
have  mainly  been  regarded  for  their  ornamental  or  exhibition 
qualities,  although  bantam  breeders  have  frequently  claimed 
that  in  relation  to  the  space  occupied  by  them,  and  the  food  cost, 
as  compared  with  the  number  of  eggs  and  the  quantity  of  flesh 
produced,  they  are  among  the  most  profitable  of  domestic  fowls. 
The  eggs  are  small  in  size,  as  the  birds  are  in  body,  but  both  are 
very  fine  in  quality.  As  pointed  out  in  ray  "  Report  on  the 
Poultry  Industry  in  Belgium,"  the  keeping  of  these  birds  by 
suburban  and  urban  residents  is  much  encouraged  in  Belgium, 
for  the  reason  that,  as  the  products  are  not  marketable,  there  is 
not  the  temptation  to  sell,  and  therefore  the  children  get  them, 
which  is  a  great  gain.  Multitudes  of  people  living  under  the  con- 
ditions named  could  keep  bantams  with  profit  for  supply  of  their 
own  tables.  A  further  point  is  that  the}^  are  less  likely  to  be  a 
nuisance  to  neighbours  than  larger  fowls. 

Food  Cost  and  Prices. — That  the  poultry  industry  in  the  United 
Kingdom  has  been  built  on  cheap  foodstuffs  cannot  be  ques- 
tioned. Had  the  high  prices  of  the  seventies  been  maintained, 
it  is  improbable  that  the  advance  made  w^ould  have  resulted. 
Any  serious  increase  in  food  cost  would  have  considerable  influ- 
ence in  checking  development.  As  an  exami)le,  I  was  informed 
in  Sweden  that  the  cost  of  producing  eggs  was  Is.  per  120  greater 
than  in  Denmark,  owing  to  duties  upon  imported  grain.  Taking 
1901,  the  minimum  year  as  to  prices  of  wheat  during  the  present 


THE  LINES  OF  DEVELOPMENT 


33 


century,  I  find  the  actual  and  av^erage  increases  of  the  three 
leading  classes  of  grain  and  of  imported  eggs  to  be  as  follows : 




1901. 

Per  Imperial 

Quarter. 

1911. 

Per  Imperial 

Quarter. 

Increases  per 
Imperial 
Quarter. 

Wheat 

Barley 

Oats 

Three  grains 

Eggs 

s.      d. 
26      9 
25     2 
18     5 

Per  Great 

Hundred. 

6      5 

8.        d. 
31      8 
27     3 
19  10 

Per  Great 

Hundred. 

8     4 

Per  Cent. 

18-38 
8-28 
2-26 

10-54 

29-87 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that,  whilst  the  advance  in  cost  of  food- 
stuffs averaged  slightl}^  over  lOJ  per  cent.,  which  would  be  in 
excess  of  the  fact,  as  the  cheaper  foods  would  be  used,  eggs  in- 
creased by  nearly  30  per  cent,  in  the  same  period,  so  that  the 
advantage  to  the  jiroducer  is  very  considerable.  It  is  always 
safer,  however,  to  take  two  quinquennial  periods,  and  the  fol- 
lowing table  is  quoted  from  the  Illustrated  Poultry  Record  :* 


1901-1905    AS    COMPARED    WITH 

1907-1911. 

I 

1901-1905.      1      190r.l911. 

Per  Imperial     Per  Imperial 

Quarter.             Quarter. 

i 

Increases. 

Price. 
8.     d. 

4     8 

1     7 

0  5 

1  3 

Per  Cent. 

Wheat 

Barley 

Oats        

Eggs        

8.        d.            i             8.        d. 

27  11       i       32     7 
24    0             25     7 
17  11              18     4 

Per  Great          Per  Great 

Hundred.           Hundred. 

6      9                   8     0 

16-71 
6-6 
2-32 

18-52 

The  myth  is  thus  disposed  of  that  the  cost  of  production  is 
relatively  higher  than  the  increased  price  of  eggs. 

Co-Operation. — A  factor  which  is  exerting  great  influence  in 
relation  to  poultry  husbandry,  in  some  countries  more  than  in 
others,  is  combination  on  the  part  of  producers  so  far  as  the  sale 
of  their  produce  is  concerned.  That  is  especially  the  case  in 
Denmark,  Holland,  and  Ireland,  and  is  being  developed  rapidly 
in  the  remote  districts  of  Scotland.  To  a  much  more  limited 
extent  has  this  form  of  co-operation  been  applied  in  England 
and  Wales,  German}^  and  Sweden.  In  other  countries  the  trade 
is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  merchants.  That  it  will  be  adopted 
to  a  much  greater  degree  in  the  future  is  apparent,  when  pro- 
ducers have  been  educated  in  the  principles  and  undei-stand  the 
advantages  of  this  sj^stem,  which  will  transfer  the  centre  of 
*  November,  1912,  p.  58. 


34  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

gravity  from  the  trader  to  the  producer,  to  whom  it  is  a  question 
of  supreme  importance,  and  who,  as  he  bears  the  responsibility 
for  quahtj^  and  expedition  in  marketing  his  goods,  will  realize 
much  better  returns  than  has  hitherto  been  the  case.  It  is 
necessarj^  however,  to  remember  that  in  the  three  countries  first 
named  immediate  consumption  is  conaparatively  small,  and  that 
the  bulk  of  the  eggs  and  poultry  must  be  exported  if  the  business 
is  to  be  successful.  Hence  there  are  no  competitive  factors  to 
take  into  account.  It  is  the  latter  which  cause  co-operation  to 
make  slower  growth  in  what  may  be  termed  consuming  countries, 
owing  to  the  local  demand  for  supplies.  For  example,  I  do  not 
know  of  anj'  county  in  England,  and  only  two  or  three  in  Wales, 
which  provide  for  their  own  needs  in  eggs  and  poultry  the  entire 
year  round.  In  a  very  large  proportion  consumption  is  several 
times  greater  than  production.  As  a  consequence,  producers  and 
consumers  are  so  near  to  each  other,  and  prices  are  so  good,  that 
there  is  no  need  for,  and  limited  opportunity  of  organization  on, 
co-operative  lines.  In  a  number  of  rural  districts  societies  have 
been  formed,  and  proved  of  the  greatest  benefit.  That  is  not 
the  only  influence.  Traders  have  been  compelled  by  fear  of  co- 
operation to  revise  their  methods,  to  pay  better  prices,  from 
which  poultry-keepers  have  obtained  great  benefits  and  con- 
sumers received  a  higher  grade  of  supplies.  It  is  not  the  trade 
done  which  counts,  but  the  influence  exerted.  Even  societies 
which  have  not  succeeded  as  business  propositions  have  paid 
their  cost  a  hundi'edfold  in  this  manner.  As  time  goes  on,  and 
especially  as  small  holdings  and  allotments  increase,  co-opera- 
tion in  its  application  to  marketing  will  find  greater  opportunities. 

Instruction  and  Investigation. — With  the  growth  of  poultry 
husljandry,  the  need  for  instruction  in  principles  and  method  on 
the  one  side,  and  investigation  into  problems  which  arise  on  the 
other,  become  more  and  more  apparent.  One  aspect  of  this 
question  I  have  already  presented  in  another  place. 

"  In  every  aspect  of  life,  advance  from  natural  to  what  may 
be  termed  artificial  conditions  involves  considerations,  and  often 
difficulties,  which  were  unrealized,  or,  if  known,  regarded  as  un- 
important. That  fact  is  seen  in  no  direction  more  than  in 
poultry  breeding  and  jjroduction.  With  enlarged  vision  ques- 
tions assume  a  totally  different  phase.  There  is,  however,  a 
further  point — namelj^,  increase  of  numbers  and  modification  of 
methods  are  themselves  frequently  contributory  to  checking 
attainment  of  the  object  in  view,  mainly  by  weakening  the 
physical  resistance.  What  would  have  been  easily  combated 
under  more  natural  conditions  exercises  a  powerful  influence. 


THE  LINES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  35 

It  is  not  until  men  have  experienced  the  loss  arising  from  abroga- 
tion of  that  balance  which  Nature  maintains  for  preservation  of 
all  organic  life,  that  they  have  to  confront  problems  the  solution 
of  which  are  essential  to  success.  We  require  to  bring  into  our 
purview  the  marvellous  advance  of  pathological  knowledge  which 
has  marked  recent  j^ears,  to  study  how  far  genetics  and  Mendelian 
theories  will  assist  practical  poultrymen,  and  to  inquire  into  the 
relationships  of  breeds  to  their  environment.  It  is  the  business 
of  the  investigator  and  experimentalist  to  probe  these  questions, 
to  discern  as  far  as  possible  how  the  equilibrium  may  be  restored, 
to  discover  the  way  of  avoidance  of  whatever  is  antagonistic,  to 
apply  enlarged  knowledge  in  other  directions  to  poultry-breed- 
ing, and  to  seek  for  shorter  cuts  to  the  end  in  view,  as  it  is  of 
the  instructor  to  bring  within  the  purview  of  those  engaged  in 
the  pursuit  the  result  of  such  inquiries,  together  with  the  experi- 
ence of  others."* 

Unhappily,  the  United  Kingdom,  though  France  was  first  and 
England  second  in  provision  of  systemized  poultry -teaching,  has 
been  far  behind  in  both  that  and  investigational  work.  It  is 
North  America,  both  Canada  and  the  United  States,  that  has 
made  the  greatest  advance  in  each  direction.  Every  country 
that  seeks  to  develop  poultry  husbandry  must  follow  these 
examples,  and  by  elementary  and  advanced  poultry  instruction, 
together  with  careful  scientific  research  and  practical  experi- 
mental work,  place  the  industry  on  a  firm  and  sure  basis. 

*  Presidential  Address,  International  Association  of  Poultry  Instructors  and 
Investigators,  London,  July,  1912. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 

That  puritj^  of  race  in  foAvLs  or  other  poultry  makes  for  pro- 
gression cannot  be  disputed.  Nature  herself  works  on  those 
lines.  Natural  selection,  as  we  understand  it,  not  alone  tends 
to  elimination  of  the  least  fit,  in  so  far  as  vigour  of  constitution 
is  concerned,  but  also  to  inducing  fixity  of  type,  even  to  colora- 
tion of  plumage  and  to  general  external  characters,  the  object 
and  purpose  of  which  are  unknown,  under  equal  conditions  of 
climate,  soil,  and  food.  In  that  way  uniformity  is  secured  over 
a  greater  or  lesser  area.  It  is  to  this  fact  we  owe  the  evolution 
of  many  of  our  breeds  of  poultry,  or  at  any  rate  the  basis  upon 
which  these  races  as  we  know  them  to-day  have  been  formed, 
Wliat,  however,  has  been  an  even  more  powerful  factor,  even  if 
supplemental  to  natural  influences,  is  that  which  we  call  "  arti- 
ficial selection  " — namely,  the  compulsory  and  often  arbitrary 
mating  of  poultry  by  man  with  some  special  end  in  view.  To 
that  we  owe  many  breeds  or  varieties.  The  production  of  these 
is  by  no  means  terminated.  Both  natural  and  artificial  influ- 
ences must  be  taken  into  consideration.  Often  artificial  selec- 
tion is  clisregardful  of  the  environment,  which  in  itself  induces 
modifications  the  breeder  is  unable  to  overcome,  and  which 
change  the  typo  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Pure  Breeds  the  Basis.' — It  would  be  a  waste  of  time  and  space 
to  discuss  whether  pure-bred  stock  is  preferable  to  mongrels. 
The  entire  position  of  the  United  Kingdom  as  a  great  breeding 
centre  has  been  built  up  on  its  pure  races  of  horses,  cattle,  and 
other  varieties  of  stock.  If  mongrelism  were  to  be  preferred, 
then  all  the  efforts  of  breeders  for  the  last  hundred  years  have 
been  in  vain,  and  the  sooner  we  abandon  the  system  the  better 
will  it  be  for  all  concerned.  Whilst  it  may  be  conceded  that 
sometimes  pedigree  and  high-class  breeding  is  carried  to  an 
extreme,  and  that  competition  for  prizes  does  not  encourage 
3<i 


THE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY  37 

productiveness,  the  benefits  of  pure-bred  animals  and  birds  are 
too  apparent  to  need  repetition.  What  applies  in  the  larger 
branches  of  stock  equalty  does  so  with  poultry,  and  I  believe 
that  it  is  imperative  for  pure  races  to  be  maintained.  Without 
these  we  should  waste  our  energies  in  breeding,  whereas  now  we 
can  conserve  the  qualities  for  Avhich  we  are  seeking,  and  by- 
judicious  breeding  obtain  results  which  would  have  been  im- 
possible under  other  conditions.  External  points  should  be 
regarded  as  determining  the  internal  qualities  of  any  breed  only 
in  so  far  as  they  show  that  it  has  been  bred  to  a  given  type. 
The  colour  of  plumage  is  no  indication  as  to  whether  a  fowl  is 
a  good  or  bad  layer,  nor  are  the  fifth  toes  on  the  Dorking  and 
the  Houdan  related  to  their  edible  qualities.  But  correct  colour 
of  feathering  tells  of  continuity  in  breeding,  and  although  there 
are  as  good  table  fowls  as  the  Dorking,  and  better  than  the 
Houdan,  who  carry  no  supernumerary  toe,  we  know  that  when 
these  fifth  toes  are  met  with  that  is  a  fowl  in  which  one  or  other 
of  these  races  has  had  a  share.  Even  where  what  may  be 
regarded  as  purely  economic  qualities,  such  as  egg  and  flesh 
production,  equally  as  to  volume  and  quality,  are  alone  sought 
for,  it  should  be  clearly  understood  that  the  basis  must  be  pure 
stock,  for  from  these  we  obtain  continuouslj^  the  highest  results. 
In  this  direction  there  is  no  need  to  quote  examples.  The  fact 
is  obvious  to  all.  Even  where  the  line  of  greater  immediate 
profit  may  be  b}^  crossing — and  I  admit  that  is  often  the  case — 
such  crosses  should  be  of  distinct  breeds. 

Economic  Qualities. — It  is  not  my  purpose  in  the  present 
volume  to  deal  at  length  with  the  various  races  of  poultr3^  The 
utility  as  distinct  from  the  purely  fancy  breeder  will  find  full 
descriptions  of  breeds  and  varieties  both  as  to  external  char- 
acters and  productive  qualities  in  "  Races  of  Domestic  Poultry.^'* 
Here  I  briefly  summarize  the  distinguishing  features  of  each 
breed.  As  the  main  purpose  is  in  respect  to  the  practical  values 
of  poultry,  the  first  consideration  must  be  that  each  breed  is 
possessor  of  qualities  that  conduce  to  profit,  either  by  the  number 
of  eggs  or  the  quantity  of  flesh  produced  in  relation  to  the  cost. 
It  is  the  margin  that  counts.  A  hen  that  merely  Isbys  enough 
eggs  during  the  year  to  meet  her  food  bill  is  useless.  Her  room 
is  better  than  her  company.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  if,  say,  a 
duckling  costs  in  feeding  as  much  as  it  will  realize  on  the  market, 
it  has  no  real  commercial  value.  Therefore  we  must  carefully 
study  the  relative  productiveness  as  indicated  by  actual  experi- 
ence, not  in  the  abnormal,  but  the  average  or  mean  of  its  race. 
*  London,  Edward  Arnold,  190G. 


38  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Exceptions  are  always  interesting.  They  have,  however,  only  a 
limited  inHiience.  In  the  light  of  these  considerations  I  submit 
the  following: 

Egg  Qualities. — In  the  next  chapter  various  qnestions  are  dis- 
cussed as  to  what  has  been  and  is  being  done  in  order  to  increase 
the  fecundity  or  laying  property  of  the  domestic  hen.  My  present 
purpose  is  to  indicate  what  are  the  qualities  in  this  direction  of 
the  breeds  known  to  us — that  is,  under  average  or  ordinary  con- 
ditions; for,  be  it  noted,  what  may  take  place  within  a  favour- 
able environment,  and  where  the  management  is  specially  good, 
will  not  be  found  everywhere.  Even  in  the  members  of  a  shigle 
flock,  descended  from  the  same  parents,  hatched,  reared,  and 
fed  identically  alike,  there  will  be  great  variations.  We  have  to 
regard  the  mean,  by  which  is  meant  the  average  tendencies. 
That  there  are  such  is  freely  admitted. 

The  first  point  to  be  considered  is  whether  the  eggs  produced 
are  of  a  marketable  size,  meeting  the  somewhat  arbitrary  require- 
ments of  consumers.  Upon  this  more  is  said  in  the  succeeding 
chapter.  There  are  prolific  breeds  which,  from  the  fact  that  the 
eggs  laid  by  them  are  small,  are  not  of  equal  economic  value  to 
those  that  lay  a  smaller  number,  except  for  home  consumption. 

Second  is  the  number  of  eggs  laid  during  the  first  and  second 
laying  years,  which  form  the  period  of  profit — that  is,  for  sale 
as  human  food.  The  food  cost  of  a  hen  is  equal  to  from  forty 
to  seventy  eggs  per  annum,  according  to  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  kept  and  the  prices  that  can  be  realized.  Therefore, 
profit  will  depend  upon  the  number  produced  bej^ond  what  will 
meet  the  charges  for  maintenance.  A  flock  of  hens  which  merely 
discharges  the  food  bill  is  of  very  limited  value  where  eggs  are 
the  main  object.  This  fact  affords  an  explanation  why  such 
strenuous  efforts  have  been  put  forth  to  increase  the  productive- 
ness of  various  breeds  of  fowls. 

Third  is  the  time  of  year  when  eggs  arc  produced.  As  is  well 
known,  this  commodity  is  much  higher  in  price  from  September 
to  February,  the  time  of  maximum  value  being  in  November, 
than  from  March  to  June,  the  time  of  minimum  usually  falling 
in  April.  A  hen  which  only  lays  when  eggs  are  cheap  requires 
to  yield  a  much  larger  number  than  if  these  were  wholly  or  partly 
produced  in  the  dear  season.  Ten  eggs  in  November  will  realize 
as  much  as  twenty  or  twenty-five  in  April.  Here,  again,  further 
information  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XXI. 

Fourth  as  to  colour  of  shell.  On  some  markets — and  those 
usually  the  better  as  to  prices — tinted-shelled  eggs  are  more  in 
demand  than  those  which  are  white  in  the  covering  envelope. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY  39 

and  sell  at  higher  rates.  There  are  centres  where  the  oi)posite  is 
true.  It  is  mainly  a  matter  of  fashion,  though  very  potent,  as 
there  is  no  traceable  difference  between  them  in  respect  to  nutri- 
tive qualities.  Three  reasons  in  favour  of  the  tinted-shelled  egg 
can  be  given — namelj^  that  in  some  of  these  the  yolk  is  larger 
in  proportion  to  the  total  bulk  as  compared  with  white-shelled; 
that  the  shells  are  usually  heavier  and  denser  in  texture  in  the 
former,  and  carry  better  in  transit;  and  that  the  breeds  which 
lay  the  coloured  eggs  are  usually  better  as  winter  layers. 

Table  Qualities. — In  respect  to  flesh  properties,  these  have  to 
be  approximated  on  similar  lines,  but  differing  in  detail.  The 
points  for  consideration  are — 

First,  the  quantity  of  flesh,  in  which  respect  there  are 
considerable  variations.  In  this  direction  the  distribution  of 
meat  is  very  important.  The  finest  specimens  are  those  in  which 
the  breast  muscles  are  most  fully  developed,  as  compared  with 
the  thighs,  the  latter  of  which  is  darker  in  colour  and  harder  in 
texture,  owing  to  a  greater  proportion  of  sinew. 

Second,  the  texture  and  softness  of  flesh.  To  some  extent 
this  is  influenced  by  the  nature  of  soil  on  which  the  birds  are 
reared,  and  the  food  given  to  them.  At  the  same  time,  some 
breeds  with  a  large  amount  of  breast  muscle  are  hard  in  flesh, 
and  therefore  not  favoured  for  the  best  trade. 

Third,  the  bone.  This  is  the  most  expensive  part  of  the  body 
to  produce,  and  is  of  very  small  value.  It  is  not  so  much  the 
thickness  of  bone  as  its  consistency.  Hard,  strong  bone,  whether 
thin  or  thick,  takes  longer  to  grow,  with  a  corresponding  increase 
in  food  consumption.  Hard  bone  is  usually  found  in  long-Hmbed 
fowls.  \ATiat  should  be  desired  is  a  soft  bone  that  can  be  cut 
through  with  a  knife. 

Fourth,  the  colour  of  flesh  and  skm.  In  nearly  all  European 
markets  white-meated  birds  are  preferred.  These  usually  have 
white  or  blue  or  bluish-black  legs.  Black-legged  birds  generally 
have  grey  flesh  and  occupy  the  second  place.  Yellow  flesh  and 
skin  are  associated  with  yellow  legs,  and  occupy  an  inferior 
position  both  as  to  quality  and  quantity  of  meat  in  relation  to 
the  total  weight.  In  America  the  last-named  have  hitherto 
been  preferred,  but  in  that  respect  a  change  is  apparently  taking 
place. 

Fifth,  the  question  of  size.  As  shown  in  the  next  chapter, 
the  bulk  of  body  in  heavy-laying  birds  is  usually  in  inverse  ratio 
to  the  number  of  eggs  produced.  Size  is,  however,  important  in 
the  meat  races,  though  not  wholly  the  case,  for  some  of  the  largest 
breeds  are  so  by  reason  of  excessive  bone. 


40  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Sixth,  a  capacity  for  rapid  growth.  In  that  respect  soil  has 
great  influence.  At  the  same  time  there  must  be  the  capability 
for  quick  development. 

Seventh,  a  disposition  to  fatten,  which  in  large  measure  is 
a  question  of  temperament.  Restlessness,  such  as  is  character- 
istic of  some  fowls,  means  want  of  responsiveness  to  this  process. 
A  mild,  easy-going,  lethargic  disposition  is  always  preferable,  as 
that  tends  to  flesh  development. 

It  may  also  be  pointed  out  that  the  table  breeds  arc  usually 
less  hardy  in  constitution  than  those  which  are  better  as  layers, 
and  that  we  cannot  expect  to  attain  ultra-development  in  both 
directions  at  the  same  time. 

So  far  as  ducks  and  geese  are  concerned,  the  above  observations 
generally  apply.  In  addition,  however,  it  may  be  pointed  out 
that  cream-  or  flesh-coloured  bills  usually  go  with  cream-coloured 
flesh,  and  that  some  of  the  best  ducks  have  a  blue  bean  on  the  tip 
of  the  bill.  The  legs  in  these  are  usually  dark  or  very  pale  orange. 
These  birds  have  never  naturally  the  pure  white  flesh  and  skin 
seen  in  the  better  qualities  of  table  fowls. 

Maternal  Proclivities. — In  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  these  days 
artificial  methods  of  hatching  and  rearing  are  general,  the  question 
as  to  whether  a  breed  is  a  sitter  or  not  must  receive  considera- 
tion. The  tendency  of  increased  fecundity  is  to  reduce  or  suspend 
the  hatching  instinct.  It  is,  therefore,  a  fact  that  we  find  what 
are  known  as  non-sitters  exclusively  among  the  heavier  layers, 
as  that  all  the  table  and  general  purpose  breeds  undertake 
maternal  duties  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree. 

Consumption  of  Food. — Where  the  object  is  profit,  the  question 
in  respect  to  cost  of  production  is  supremely  important.  So  far 
as  poidtry  are  concerned,  food  must  ever  be  the  chief  expense. 
Therefore  it  is  desirable  to  learn,  as  far  as  possible,  what  is  the 
relative  consumption  by  the  different  races,  whilst  recognizing 
that  this  must  vary  considerably,  and  that  the  conditions  under 
which  birds  are  kept  will  have  a  great  influence  upon  the  amount 
of  food  eaten.  In  this  direction  there  is  abundant  opportunity 
for  careful  observations,  as  the  data  available  is  very  limited 
indeed.  One  fact  is  evident — namely,  that  the  heavier  and 
larger  the  body  the  more  food  is  required  for  its  sustenance.  As 
a  consequence,  taking  a  hen  weighing,  say,  4  pounds,  and  another 
weighing  6  pounds,  each  producing  the  same  number  of  eggs, 
from  such  knowledge  as  we  possess  it  may  be  assumed  that  the 
food  cost  will  be  40  to  50  per  cent,  greater  with  the  heavier  than 
the  lighter  fowl.      For  example,  some  years  ago  M.  Lemoine,  the 


THE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY  41 

eminent  French  poultry-breeder,  found  that  Hamburghs  and 
Leghorns  required  4|  to  44-  ounces  of  food  per  diem,  whereas  the 
larger  Crevecoeurs,  Dorkings,  Houdans,  La  Fleche,  and  Lang- 
shans,  consumed  about  7  ounces,  and  the  huge  Cochin,  heavy  in 
bone  and  feather,  ate  upwards  of  17J  ounces  in  the  same  period. 
Probabh^  it  is  not  so  much  noticed  when  the  birds  are  at  liberty, 
as  there  they  find  a  large  amount  of  natural  feed.  Even  then, 
however,  the  lighter  ])reeds  are  usually  more  active  and  better 
foragers.     Ducks,  geese,  and  turkej^s,  are  all  heavj^  eaters. 

Classification  of  Poultry.  In  view  of  what  has  been  stated 
above,  it  is  now  my  purpose  to  classify  the  various  breeds  in 
accordance  with  their  economic  properties.  In  doing  so,  the  same 
arrangement  is  followed  which  I  introduced  in  1891,  when  the 
first  edition  of  "  Poultry  Keeping  as  an  Industry  for  Farmers  and 
Cottagers  "  was  published,  as  I  do  not  know  a  better  one.  Within 
each  of  the  following  sections  the  races  of  poultry  can  be  included, 
though  some  of  these  may  be  near  the  border  line.  The  following 
are  the  divisions: 

Fowls.— 

1.  Egg-producing  races. 
2..  Flesh -producing  races. 

3.  General  purpose  (egg  and  flesh)  races. 

4.  Ornamental  races. 

Ducks. — 

1.  Egg-producing  races. 

2.  Flesh-producing  races. 

Geese  and  Turkeys. — All  are  bred  for  flesh,  not  eggs,  except  for 
reproductive  purposes. 

The  terms  used  above  mean  that,  whilst  the  egg  races  carry  some 
flesh,  profit  is  due  to  the  eggs  laid ;  and  that  in  the  flesh  races  the 
eggs  would  not  be  enough,  as  compared  with  the  flesh,  to  repay 
the  owner.  So  far  as  ducks  are  concerned,  whilst  some  breeds  are 
profitable  laj-ers,  flesh  bulks  to  a  considerable  extent. 

A  difficulty  which  here  presents  itself  is  selection  of  breeds  to 
be  included  in  the  lists  given  below.  Those  who  desire  to  study 
the  question  to  a  fuller  extent  as  to  British  and  foreign  breeds 
will  find  many  of  these  fully  dealt  with  in  "  Races  of  Domestic 
Poultry,"*  which  are  not  here  named,  simply  by  reason  of  the 
fact  that  they  are  either  unknown  or  have  not  special  qualities  to 
commend  them  to  practical  poultry-keepers.  Therein  will  be 
found  detailed  lists  of  the  colour  of  flesh,  skin,  legs,  eggs,  etc. 
Under  Class  No.  4  I  name  a  few  breeds  of  Bantams  for  such  as 
*  London,  Edward  Arnold,  1906. 


42  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

desire  to  keep  these  birds  for  the  sake  of  their  eggs  and  flesh.  It 
may  also  be  noted  that  some  breeds  are  left  out  which  formerly 
Xjossessed  utility  qualities  to  a  considerable  extent,  but  which  can 
no  longer  make  that  claim. 

Egg-Producing  Races  of  Fowls. — Ancona,  Braekel,  Campine, 
Hamburgh,  Houdan,  Leghorn,  Minorca,  Redcap,  Scotch  Grey. 

In  these  the  maternal  instinct  is  usually  suspended — that  is, 
only  occasionally  is  it  displayed.  They  are  generally  medium  or 
small  in  size  of  bod}^  are  active  in  habit,  and  quick  growers, 
attaining  maturity  at  an  early  age.  Almost  without  exception 
the  hens  produce  white-shelled  eggs. 

Those  indicated  by  an  asterisk  are  more  useful  for  crossing  than 
when  bred  pure. 

Ancona. — A  mottled  plumage  fowl,  in  other  respects  closely 
resembling  Leghorns;  small  in  body,  and  carrying  little  flesh; 
excellent  layers  of  fair-sized  eggs;  active  in  habit,  hardy,  and 
precocious. 

Braekel. — This  and  the  Campine  are  closely  related;  the 
Braekel  slightly  larger  in  body,  which  is,  however,  small ;  moderate 
in  flesh  qualities  except  when  very  young;  very  prolific  laj'ers  of 
large  eggs;  hardy  and  active  foragers.  The  majority  of  so-called 
English  Campines  are  really  Braekels;  two  varieties.  Gold  and 
Silver. 

Campine. — Originated  on  the  sandy  plains  of  Northern 
Belgium ;  resembles  Pencilled  Hamburghs,  except  that  they  have 
single  and  not  rose  combs;  excellent  layers  of  good-sized  eggs; 
hardy  and  active;  small  in  size  of  body;  two  varieties.  Gold  and 
Silver. 

*  Hamburgh. — Small-sized,  well-shaped  body  on  longish  legs, 
very  stylish  and  attractive ;  has  rose  comb  and  large  tail  feathers ; 
exceedingly  good  layers,  but  eggs  below  market  standard  in  size ; 
five  varieties.  Black,  Gold-spangled,  Silver-spangled,  Gold-pen- 
cilled, Silver-pencilled;  active,  fairly  hardy,  good  foragers,  and 
small  eaters. 

Houdan. — A  French  breed,  modified  in  Britain;  large  medium 
in  size  of  body,  broad  and  massive;  plumage  mottled  black  and 
white;  comb  divided  like  a  double  leaf,  and  crested;  clean  legs, 
pinkish-white,  with  a  fifth  toe ;  fair  layers  of  good-sized  eggs ;  flesh 
white,  and  more  abundant  than  is  usual  in  this  class;  not  very 
active;  most  successful  on  light  soils. 

Leghorn. — Of  the  Mediterranean  type;  small-bodied,  active 
fowls  of  great  precociousness,  and  hardy  in  the  extreme;  good 
foragers  and  small  eaters;  legs  clean  and  yellow;  flesh  and  skin 
yellow,   but  sparse  and  of  inferior  quality;   prolific  layers  of 


THE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY  43 

marketable  eggs ;  several  varieties — namely,  White,  Black,  Brown, 
Buff,  Cuckoo,  Duckwing,  Pile,  and  Mottled;  the  three  first 
named  best  in  economic  qualities. 

Minorca. — Also  from  Mediterranean;  medium  in  size  of  body, 
with  fair  amount  of  meat;  dark  legs  and  grey  flesh;  excellent 
layers  of  very  large  eggs;  not  very  hardy,  requiring  favourable 
conditions  in  respect  to  climate  and  soil ;  two  varieties.  Black  and 
White  respectively,  but  latter  seldom  seen. 

Redcap. — Original  t}^e  of  Gold-spangled  Hamburgh;  similar 
in  colour  and  markings,  not  so  even  in  the  latter ;  very  large  comb ; 
hard}^  more  especially  in  hilly  districts;  prolific  layers  of  good- 
sized  eggs. 

Scotch  Grey. — Tall  and  somewhat  long  in  limbs ;  plumage  evenly 
barred  black  and  white;  white  or  mottled  legs;  flesh  and  skin 
white  and  good  in  quality  and  quantity  of  flesh;  a  fair  layer  of 
large  eggs ;  moderately  hardy. 

Of  the  above.  Leghorns  hold  the  premier  position,  more 
especially  the  WTiite  variety,  for  economic  purposes,  when  of  the 
lighter-bodied  type,  in  America  and  Australia,  as  well  as  in 
Europe. 

Flesh-Producing  Races  of  Fowls. — Bresse,  Dorking,  Game, 
Indian  (Coriiish)  Game,  Malines,  Sussex. 

These,  with  exception  of  the  Bresse,  are  all  good  sitters  and 
mothers.  They  are,  with  the  same  exception,  large  in  frame  of 
l)ody,  carrying  a  considerable  volume  of  flesh.  The  Bresse  and 
Dorking  lay  white-shelled  and  the  other  tinted-shelled  eggs. 

Bresse. — The  premier  table  fowl  of  France;  smaller  medium  in 
size  of  body,  but  long,  with  light  bone,  and  a  remarkable  capacity 
for  flesh  development  when  fatted;  flesh  white,  of  the  finest 
quality  and  texture;  good  laj^ers  of  marketable  eggs;  fairly  hardy 
when  kept  on  range ;  three  varieties,  W^iite,  Black,  and  Grey. 

*  Dorking. — The  oldest  English  breed  save  the  Game  fowl ;  body 
large,  broad,  and  deep,  and  when  viewed  sidewaj's  almost  formmg 
an  oblong  square ;  breast  well  forward,  neck  and  legs  short ;  legs 
clean,  pure  white  in  colour,  and  carrying  a  fifth  toe  on  each  foot ; 
early  but  moderate  layer  of  large  eggs;  five  varieties.  Dark, 
Silver-grey,  White,  Cuckoo,  and  Red. 

*  Game. — Modern  long-legged  type  considerably  modified 
from  original  form,  and  are  purely  ornamental;  old-fashioned 
Fighting  Game  medium  in  size;  moderate  in  length  of  neck  and 
legs ;  body  broad  and  deep,  with  gi-eat  breast  development ;  large 
amount  of  flesh  on  breast,  flne  in  texture  but  rather  hard,  re- 
quiring to  be  well  hung  before  cooking ;  legs  clean,  some  varieties 
white,  others  yellow;  variable  as  layers;  eggs  very  rich;  hardy 


44  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

when  bred  on  range;  too  restless  for  confinement  or  fattening; 
several  varieties. 

*  Indian  (Cornish)  Game. — Large,  massive,  heavy-boned  fowls : 
very  long  in  neck  and  legs;  deep  yellow  flesh,  skin  and  legs; 
plump  and  weli-meated  breasts,  but  flesh  hard;  poor  layers  of 
small  but  very  rich  eggs ;  partridge-coloured  in  plumage,  which  is 
very  rich ;  valuable  for  crossing  with  soft-fleshed  races ;  very  hardy. 

Maline.s. — A  modern  Belgian  breed,  following  Asiatic  type; 
very  large  in  body,  stout  but  soft  bones;  short  neck;  long  legs, 
which  are  slightly  feathered,  rosy  white  in  colour ;  flesh  good  and 
abundant,  creamy  white  in  colour;  a  fair  layer;  three  varieties. 
Cuckoo,  White,  and  Turkey -headed ;  chiefly  used  for  production  of 
large  winter  fowls;  fattens  well;  hardy,  indolent  in  disposition. 

Sussex. — Old  tA^e  of  fowl  bred  in  South-Eastern  England;  has 
sometimes  been  called  the  "four-toed  Dorking'';  body  larger 
medium  in  size ;  light  bone ;  capacity  for  great  flesh  development, 
as  it  is  broad  and  deep,  and  fattens  well ;  flesh  and  skin  beautifully 
white,  as  are  the  legs ;  moderate  as  a  layer ;  fairly  hardy,  requiring 
warm  soil;  four  varieties.  Brown,  Red,  Light,  and  Speckled. 

For  reasons  stated  below,  the  best  to  be  used  pure  are  the 
Bresse,  Malines,  and  Sussex.  The  other  races,  however,  are 
valuable  for  crossing. 

General  Purpose  Races  of  Fowls. — Faverolle,  Langshan  (Croad), 
Orpington,  Plymouth  Rock,  Rhode  Island  Red,  Wyandotte. 

The  races  named  above  combine  egg  and  flesh  qualities  without 
special  development  in  either  direction.  W^hat  is  lost  in  one 
respect  is  gained  in  the  other,  so  that  the  balance  is  equalized. 
All  are  large  in  size  of  body,  with  which,  however,  is  an  increase 
of  bone,  so  that  they  are  not  characterized  by  rapidity  of  growth, 
though  in  that  respect  there  are  considerable  variations.  The 
flesh  is  not  of  the  first  quality  as  a  rule,  but  two  breeds,  the 
Faverolle  and  some  varieties  of  the  Orpington,  are  near  the  front 
rank.  All  are  good  sitters  and  mothers,  and  the  eggs  produced 
have  tinted  shells.     In  the  main  they  are  good  winter  layers. 

Faverolle. — A  French  breed  originating  in  Southern  Normandy; 
large  and  upstanding  in  body;  colour  of  flesh,  skin,  and  legs, 
white ;  the  legs  are  slightly  feathered ;  inider  the  head  are  prom- 
inent muffs,  or  clumps  of  loose  feathers;  the  hens  are  good 
layers ;  in  flesh  they  are  fairly  full,  and  they  fatten  well,  as  the 
disposition  is  quiet;  hardy  and  precocious;  the  coloration  of 
plumage  is  uncertain,  with  a  tendency  to  salmon  in  one  variety 
and  dark  or  black  in  another. 

Langshan. — Here  again  modern  breeding  for  exhibition  has  led 
to  great  elongation  of  leg  in  what  is  known  as  the  Modern  Lang- 


THE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY  45 

shall,  which  is  of  small  economic  value.  The  original  or  Croad 
type  is  totally  different :  large  fowls  on  rather  long  legs,  somewhat 
heavy  in  bone ;  flesh  grey,  fairly  distributed  and  good  in  quality ; 
legs  slightly  feathered ;  excellent  winter  layers  of  very  dark-shelled 
eggs;  not  very  hardy,  requiring  kindl}^  conditions;  plumage 
entirely  black,  of  great  brilliancy.  There  are  Whites  and  Blues 
also,  but  purely  for  exhibition. 

Orjnngton. — Large-bodied,  broad  and  deep,  with  neck  and  legs 
of  medium  length ;  originally  there  was  one  variety.  Black,  but 
that  is  now  bred  to  a  limited  extent  except  for  show  purposes. 
The  later  types,  the  Buff  and  the  White,  are  among  our  most 
valuable  races;  fairly  heavy  in  bone;  flesh  well  distributed, 
abundant  and  of  excellent  quality^;  flesh,  skin,  and  legs,  white; 
fatten  well,  and  are  quiet  in  disposition;  good  winter  layers;  upon 
all  but  heaviest  soils  are  found  very  hardy ;  varieties  as  above. 

Plymouth  Rock. — An  American  breed;  large  and  upright  in 
body,  somewhat  heavy  in  bone;  fair  amount  of  flesh,  which  can 
be  largely  increased  as  a  result  of  fattening;  flesh,  skin,  and  legs, 
yellow;  good  winter  layers,  but  keen  sitters  and  mothers;  quiet 
in  disposition  and  hardy  in  the  extreme;  four  varieties.  Barred, 
White,  Black,  and  Buff. 

Rhode  Island  Red. — Also  of  American  production,  and  is  largely 
kept  in  the  State  from  Avhich  the  name  is  derived.  Within  the 
last  few  years  it  has  grown  greatly  in  popularity.  Medium  in  size 
of  body;  moderate  in  weight  of  bone;  flesh,  skin,  and  legs,  deep 
yellow;  in  meat  qualities  good,  save  for  the  colour;  fair  layers  of 
large,  well-tinted  eggs ;  very  hardy  and  precocious ;  coloration  of 
plumage  a  bright  red,  except  the  wing  flights  and  tail,  which  are 
black ;  two  varieties.  Single  and  Rose-combed  respectively. 

Wyandotte. — Also  American;  medium-sized  body,  with  mod- 
erate bone;  flesh,  skin,  and  legs,  pale  yellow;  comb  rose,  lying 
("lose  to  the  head;  flesh  fairly  abundant  and  of  fair  quality;  ex- 
ceedingl}^  prolific,  especially  in  winter,  but  the  eggs  have  a  ten- 
dency to  small  size,  and  are  lightly  tinted;  very  hardy,  active, 
and  precocious ;  there  are  several  varieties,  of  which  the  White, 
Silver,  and  Buff  occupy  the  leading  position. 

W^hilst  all  the  above  are  strong  in  economic  qualities,  the 
Orpington  and  the  Wyandotte  at  present  are  chiefly  in  favour. 

Ornamental  Races  of  Fowls. — The  number  of  these  is  legion,  and 
appears  to  be  ever  increasing.  For  such  as  desire  to  keep  Bantams, 
as  suggested  in  the  previous  chapter,  it  is  enough  for  my  present 
purpose  to  mention  those  which  are  best  in  economic  qualities, 
and  which  would  be  likely  to  thrive  under  strict  confinement. 
These  are — Rose-combed,  Brahma,  Leghorn,  and  Scotch  Grey, 


46  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

among  English  breeds,  and  the  Barbus  Nains  of  Belgium.  Those 
who  are  not  so  restricted  as  to  space  will  find  Game  Bantams  of 
the  older  type  very  productive. 

Egg-Producing  Races  o£  Ducks. — Indian  Runner,  Pekin. 

Many  breeds  of  ducks  could  be  named  both  under  this  and  the 
following  sections.  It  is  enough,  however,  for  our  purpose  to 
mention  those  whose  qualities  have  been  proved. 

Indian  Runner. — Small  in  size  of  body;  very  long  and  penguin- 
shaped — that  is,  the  neck  high  above  the  ground,  showing  the  full 
line  of  breast.  This  has  been  carried  to  an  extreme  in  show 
birds,  which  are  abnormal,  and  shaped  like  a  champagne  bottle ; 
flesh  very  good  and  abundant  for  size ;  wonderful  layers  of  eggs, 
which  are  smaller  than  usually  produced  b}'  ducks ;  good  foragers 
and  ver}^  hardy ;  plumage  parti-coloured,  the  neck  and  sides  white, 
and  the  body  fawn. 

Pekin. — Of  Chinese  origin;  long  in  body,  which  is  somewhat 
shallow,  though  broad;  owing  to  the  legs  being  set  well  back,  the 
carriage  is  upright ;  flesh  fairly  abundant,  but  does  not  attain  the 
weight  of  the  Aylesbury,  and  is  slower  in  growth;  the  flesh  is 
yellow,  the  legs  and  bill  a  deep  orange  colour;  the  duck  is  an 
excellent  layer;  very  hardy  and  active,  and  a  good  forager; 
plumage  white,  with  a  strong  canary  tinge.  It  may  be  explained 
that  the  American  Pekin  differs  from  the  English,  in  that  it  is  not 
so  upright  and  is  whiter  in  feather. 

Flesh-Producing  Races  of  Ducks. — Aylesbury,  Huttegem, 
Rouen. 

The  same  specialization  has  not  taken  place  in  ducks  as  in 
fowls,  so  that  the  differences  arc  less  marked.  The  above  list, 
however,  represents  breeds  in  which  fiesh  qualities  are  pre- 
eminent. 

Aylesbury. — The  great  English  duck;  matures  very  rapidly 
indeed,  and  thus  is  specially  valuable  for  the  spring  duckling 
trade ;  heavy  in  body,  which  is  level  with  the  ground,  though  light 
in  bone,  set  on  short  legs  of  a  deep  orange  colour ;  the  head  and  bill 
are  long,  the  latter  of  a  delicate  flesh  tint;  flesh  and  skin  are 
white;  flesh  is  very  abundant  and  of  fine  quality;  plumage  pure 
white  throughout. 

Huttegem. — Bred  extensively  in  the  Audenarde  district  of 
East  Flanders,  Belgium;  of  a  medium  size,  flattish  on  back  and 
narrowish,  but  deej);  light  in  bone;  excellent  in  flesh  and  fatten 
well;  early  and  good  layers;  quick  growers  when  allowed  out  on 
the  fields  and  water  meadows;  hardy  in  the  extreme  and  splendid 
foragers ;  parti-coloured. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY  47 

Rouen. — Resembles  in  plumage  the  mallard  or  wild  duck,  in 
which  respect  the  drakes  are  very  brilliant ;  large  in  size  of  body, 
and  strong  in  bone,  as  a  consequence  it  is  slow  in  development, 
and  only  suitable  for  autumn  and  winter  trade;  flesh  the  finest  of 
all  ducks  at  that  time,  and  very  abundant;  an  excellent  layer; 
very  hardy  indeed. 

Races  of  Geese. — Embden,  Pomeranian,  Roman,  Toulouse. 

The  geese  named  above  embrace  the  breeds  of  most  practical 
value,  although  there  are  others  found  in  different  countries. 

Embden. — Large  in  size,  with  stout  bone;  deep  in  body,  but 
somewhat  flat  in  front ;  flesh  of  fine  quality  and  abundant ;  a  fair 
layer,  coming  into  profit  early;  the  young  birds  mature  rapidly, 
and  it  is  therefore  specially  suited  for  the  early  autumn  trade, 
although  fattening  to  a  greater  size  by  Christmas;  the  plumage 
is  pure  white,  the  bill  flesh-coloured,  and  the  legs  and  feet  orange- 
coloured. 

Pomeranian. — Found  largely  upon  the  Continent  of  Europe; 
known  as  Saddlebacks  in  Britain;  large  in  size  of  body,  and 
stout  in  bone;  not  very  rapid  in  growth;  when  mature  carry  a 
large  amount  of  flesh,  especially  upon  the  breast,  which  is  fine  in 
quality  and  texture ;  a  moderate  layer  and  good  sitter  and  mother ; 
very  hardy  and  excellent  foragers,  especially  on  low-lying,  open 
lands ;  the  English  name  is  derived  from  a  broad  dark  patch  upon 
the  back  and  wings,  white  predominating  except  upon  the  head 
and  neck. 

Roman. — In  Southern  Europe,  excepting  France,  geese  are 
smaller  in  size  than  farther  North.  These  appear  to  be  descended 
from  the  ancient  Roman  goose,  which  is  medium  in  size,  8  to 
14  pounds ;  body  long  and  broad,  well  developed  below ;  long  neck 
and  legs;  fine  head,  on  which  is  a  small  crest;  legs  strong;  it  is  a 
prolific  layer,  and  the  goslings  grow  rapidly;  the  flesh  is  fairly 
abundant  and  good ;  there  are  two  varieties,  one  pure  white,  and 
the  other  partly  white  and  partly  dark  grey. 

Toulouse. — Often  called  the  Grey  Goose;  very  large,  deep- 
bodied,  and  massive,  with  a  prominent  breast ;  head  and  bill  very 
strong,  as  is  the  bone;  prolific  as  a  layer,  and  a  non-sitter;  flesh 
abundant;  as  it  is  slow  in  growth,  the  time  of  marketing  is 
Christmas;  the  plumage  is  dark  grey,  except  the  under-parts, 
which  are  white. 

In  view  of  the  demand  for  smaller-sized  geese  on  the  market,  the 
Roman  breed  might  be  introduced  with  great  advantage. 

Races  of  Turkeys.  —  American  Bronze,  Black,  Cambridge 
Bronze,  White. 


48  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

As  in  the  case  of  geese,  turkeys  are  bred  only  for  their  flesh 
qualities. 

American  Bronze. — The  largest  of  our  domesticated  poultry; 
long,  broad,  deep,  and  massive  in  body,  with  prominent  breasts ; 
the  flesh  is  abundant,  but  coarser  in  texture  than  the  other 
varieties ;  hens  are  excellent  sitters  and  mothers ;  plumage  is  very 
brilliant,  and  the  whole  appearance  striking. 

Black. — Of  this  there  are  two  kinds — the  Black  Norfolk  and  the 
French  Black.  Of  these  the  former  are  seldom  seen;  in  size  they 
do  not  compare  with  the  American  or  Cambridge  Bronze;  flesh 
very  abundant,  soft,  beautiful  in  quality,  and  pure  white;  the 
Black  Norfolk  greatly  suffered  by  loss  of  constitutional  vigour, 
and  the  French  are  also  somewhat  delicate,  requiring  favourable 
conditions ;  in  plumage  the  last-named  is  self-coloured,  whilst  the 
former  is  marked  with  grey. 

Cambridge  Bronze. — Formed  by  a  cross  between  the  Black 
Norfolk,  an  old  grey  East  Anglian  turkey,  and  the  American 
Bronze;  large,  stout-boned,  and  deep  in  body;  flesh  abundant, 
very  fine  in  texture  and  soft,  especially  upon  the  breast ;  it  holds 
the  first  place  upon  our  markets ;  it  is  ver}^  hard}^ ;  the  plumage  is 
a  dull  bronze,  with  grey  reflections,  and  lacks  the  brilliancy  of  the 
American  Bronze. 

White. — Largely  distributed  throughout  Southern  Europe; 
medium  in  size  of  body,  with  good  flesh  qualities,  though  not  so 
well  developed  as  are  other  breeds;  fairly  hardy;  plumage 
burnished  white  throughout. 

Crosses. — The  old  notion  that  crosses  are  better  than  pure 
races  has  been  exploded.  The  great  objections  to  such  a  practice 
are  that  there  is  not  the  same  surety  for  continuity  of  the  valuable 
and  profitable  qualities,  and  that  the  mixing  up  of  external 
characters  means  loss  of  realizable  value  for  breeding  purposes. 
At  the  same  time,  when  birds  are  bred  simply  to  be  used  as  laying 
stock  or  for  early  killing,  and  not  as  breeders,  it  is  often  found 
that  first  crosses,  the  result  of  mating  suitable  races,  possess  an 
accession  of  vigour  that  is  very  valuable  indeed,  making  for 
enhancement  of  productiveness  either  in  eggs  or  flesh.  It  is  this 
loss  of  virility  wherein  consists  the  main  danger  of  breeding  on 
pure  lines.  About  that  question  more  is  said  in  the  next  chapter. 
On  the  other  hand,  whilst  we  hear  about  crosses  that  have  proved 
successfu.1,  nothing  is  known  about  those  which  have  failed  to 
yield  any  better  results  than  if  pure  stock  had  been  wholly  em- 
ployed. And.  further,  as  a  rule  farmers  and  others  who  mix  their 
flocks,  merely  introducing  fresh  male  birds  annually,  often  with- 
out due  regard  to  what  has  been  used  previously,  do  not  obtain 


THE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY  49 

greater  results  than  where  the  breeds  are  kept  pure.  It  may  be 
that  where  the  latter  is  the  case  greater  care  is  taken  in  selection 
and  breeding. 

Generally  speaking,  it  may  be  accepted  as  a  rule  for  adoption, 
that  where  egg  production  is  the  main  object  the  plan  which  maybe 
commended  is  to  keep  pure  breeds  only,  for  in  this  way  the  proved 
capacity  of  pullets  in  that  respect  can  be  utilized  and  transmitted 
to  future  generations,  both  by  selection  of  the  birds  themselves 
and  by  further  use  of  their  parents.  Should  a  cross  be  desired 
for  any  reason,  those  which  have  proved  their  value  are — 

1.  White  or  Black  Leghorn  cock  mated  with  Houdan  hens. 

2.  Black  Hamburgh  cock  mated  with  Minorca  hens. 

The  latter  require  kindlier  soils  and  not  very  exposed  positions. 
WTien  this  is  done,  however,  the  cross-bred  pullets  should  not  be 
used  for  stock  purposes,  but  fresh  matings  be  made  of  the  same 
races. 

On  the  other  hand,  I  am  firmly  of  opinion  that  cross-breeding 
for  production  of  table  chickens  and  ducklings  is  often  to  be  pre- 
ferred, in  that  the  increase  of  vigour  in  the  young  birds  is  bene- 
ficial, enabling  them  to  withstand  the  amount  of  forcing  that  the 
process  entails,  and  that  often  such  cross-breds  are  speciallj^  rapid 
in  attainment  of  maturity.  Here,  again,  the  basis  must  be  pure 
stock.  The  best-growing  chickens  I  ever  reared  were  produced 
by  mating  a  Faverolle  cock  and  Buff  Orpington  hens,  and  I  have 
kno\^^l  equally  good  results  obtained  by  using  the  same  male 
mated  with  White  Orpington  or  Speckled  Sussex  hens.  The 
crosses  to  be  commended,  therefore,  are — 

L  Faverolle  cock — Bujff  Orpington  hens. 

2.  Faverolle  cock — White  Orpington  hens. 

3.  Faverolle  cock — Speckled  Sussex  hens. 

These  are  for  the  production  of  spring  or  early  summer  chickens, 
to  be  killed  when  from  twelve  to  fourteen  weeks  old  and  reared 
on  warm  soils.     On  heavier  lands  I  should  recommend — 

4.  Faverolle  cock — Plymouth  Rock  hens. 

For  the  production  of  large  winter  fowls  the  Indian  (Cornish) 
Game  is  very  useful,  but,  as  the  chickens  are  slower  in  growth,  they 
are  not  of  the  same  value  for  an  earlier  trade.  The  crosses  sug- 
gested are — 

5.  Indian  Game  cock — Dorking  hens. 

6.  Indian  Game  cock — White  Orpington  hens. 

7.  Indian  Game  cock — Speckled  Sussex  hens. 

8.  Plymouth  Rock  cock — Sussex  hens. 

In  the  case  of  ducks,  excellent  results  have  been  obtained  by 
mating  a  Pekin  drake  with  Aylesbury  ducks. 

4 


CHAPTER  IV 

SELECTION  AND  BREEDING 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  by  the  beginner  in  poultry  husbandry, 
or  by  such  as  desire  to  introduce  a  better  class  of  stock,  is  to 
choose  the  breed  or  breeds  which  it  is  intended  to  maintain.  This 
question  deserves  careful  consideration  before  a  final  determina- 
tion is  made.  Should  it  be,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  that  there 
arc  already  other  breeders  who  have  proved  the  adaptability  of 
given  breeds  to  the  immediate  conditions,  and  have  been  success- 
ful in  their  operations,  it  is  a  wise  policy  to  build  up  on  their 
experience,  rather  than  to  strike  out  in  other  dnections.  On 
the  other  hand,  should  it  be  that  examples  are  available  of  breeds 
which  have  failed  in  these  respects,  then  such  classes  of  poultry 
should  be  avoided.  In  that  case,  before  choice  is  fixed,  it  is  wise 
to  make  careful  inquiry  as  to  how  any  breed  has  acted  elsewhere 
under  similar  conditions  of  soil,  chmate,  and  elevation,  for  in  this 
manner  much  guidance  can  be  obtained  and  mistakes  avoided. 
These  are  not  easily  remedied  at  a  later  stage.  The  point  here 
submitted  is  specially  important  m  a  highly  diversified  country 
like  the  United  Kingdom.  Adaptability  to  environment,  there- 
fore, is  a  supreme  consideration  where  the  object  is  profitable 
production  of  eggs  and  flesh.  Such  cannot  be  determined  as  a 
question  of  fancy  or  arbitrary  predilection ;  these  must  be  left  to 
the  amateiir  and  the  exhibitor. 

Uniformity  of  Breeds. — In  Chapter  VI.  are  discussed  questions 
of  climate  and  soil  in  their  relation  to  poultry  husbandry.  I  am 
now  dealing  with  the  subject  from  the  other  side — namely,  as  to 
the  breeds  to  be  chosen.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  unit  of  variability  is  the  race  or  group,  not  the 
individual  fowl.  Here  may  be  quoted  what  I  have  said  else- 
where: *"  Enlargement  of  choice  may  be  a  positive  hindrance. 

*  From  paper  on   "  Promotion  of  Poultry-Keeping,"  by  Edward  Brown, 
F.L.S.,  Report  of  Dublin  Poultry  Conference,  May,  1911. 
50 


SELECTION  AND  BREEDING  51 

Indiscriminate  racial  selection  is,  generally  speaking,  a  mistake. 
A  measure  of  uniformity  of  the  fowls  met  with  over  a  given  area, 
where  the  environment  is  equal,  is  natural,  provided,  of  course, 
that  the  breed  or  breeds  are  suitable  thereto.  France  built  up 
her  poultry  industry  in  this  manner,  and  later  observations  have 
confirmed  the  wisdom  of  so  doing.  Nearly  all  the  most  successful 
developments  of  recent  years  have  been  on  these  lines.  Egg 
production  in  Denmark,  at  Petaluma  in  California,  in  the  State 
of  Rhode  Island,  and  in  Australia ;  table  poultry  in  South-Eastern 
England,  in  Buckinghamshire,  in  various  departments  of  France, 
in  East  Flanders,  and  in  the  South  Shore  district  of  Massachusetts, 
have,  in  each  individual  instance  named,  mainly  been  with  one 
breed,  modified  here  and  there  by  introduction  of  a  second.  It 
may  be  pointed  out  that,  when  such  is  the  case,  it  is  much  easier 
to  appreciate  the  racial  values,  and  a  single  breed  is  capable  of 
more  rigid  and  careful  selection,  generation  after  generation, 
than  is  possible  when  all  sorts  are  found  in  a  district,  whilst  the 
introduction  of  fresh  stock  of  a  high  quality  is  made  easier.  I 
submit  that  the  time  has  arrived  when  our  main  effort  should 
not  be  restricted  so  much,  as  in  the  past,  to  increase  in  the  number 
of  fowls  kept — at  any  rate  over  those  sections  where  the  most 
progress  has  been  made,  though  the  United  Kingdom  could  double 
if  not  treble  its  stock  of  poviltry — as  to  advancement  of  the 
productiveness  of  what  we  now  possess.  A  good  deal  has  been 
done  in  this  direction,  but  much  more  remains  to  be  accomplished 
for  improvement.'' 

Unity  of  choice  is  of  primary  importance.  It  is  preferable, 
therefore,  as  a  general  rule,  to  adopt  the  breed  which  is  mainly 
found  in  any  given  area,  and  which  has  proved  its  suitability 
thereto,  so  long  as  that  retains  its  virility  and  productiveness. 
We  have  sufficient  instances  to  show  that  changes  are  reqviired, 
for  races  of  poultry  in  process  of  time  become  exhausted,  as  do 
plants  and  cereals.  Cases  in  point  are  the  svibstitution  of  the 
Faverolle  for  the  Houdan  in  the  Seine-et-Oise  district  of  France, 
and  of  the  Bronze  American  turkey  for  the  Black  Norfolk  in 
East  Anglia.  These  might  be  multiplied,  but  will  suffice  to  illus- 
trate my  point.  When  that  is  true,  pioneers  are  valuable  in  test- 
ing new  forms,  and  ultimately  should  lead  to  a  general  trans- 
ference to  the  race  found  most  valuable;  whilst,  on  the  one  hand, 
indiscriminate  introduction  of  breeds  in  any  district,  making  for 
lack  of  uniformity  in  the  produce  marketed,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  retention  of  a  class  of  bird  which  has  lost  its  economic  value, 
is  foolish  in  the  extreme.  That  is  a  species  of  conservatism  which 
is  individually  and  nationally  a  distinct  hindrance  to  progress. 


52  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Choice  of  Individuals. — Not  alone  are  there  great  variations 
between  the  races  of  poultry,  more  especially  fowls,  but  also  dif- 
ferences between  individual  members  of  one  breed  or  variety; 
no  two  are  ever  exactly  alike.  As  to  many  of  the  causes  of  such 
variations,  we  have  no  reliable  data  available.  One  pullet  will 
often  lay  double  the  number  of  eggs  produced  by  a  full  sister 
hatched  from  the  same  nest.  Some  of  these  differences  may  be 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  families  or  strains  have  been  bred  and 
reared  under  totally  different  conditions  and  for  different  ends, 
though  not  wholly  so.  This  question  of  variation  is  deeply  in- 
teresting, but  cannot  be  discussed  here.  I  deal  with  it  in  "  Races 
of  Domestic  Poultry."  It  will  be  enough  if  I  point  out  that  the 
plasticity  of  poultry  and  their  responsiveness  to  conditional  as 
well  as  selective  influences  have  the  effect  of  modifying  both 
external  characters  as  well  as  economic  qualities,  though  only 
partially,  thus  accounting  for  the  variations  met  with.  For  in- 
stance, taking  one  of  the  modern  varieties,  say  the  White  Or- 
pington, it  would  be  possible  to  produce  three  if  not  four  distinct 
tj'pes.  If  one  breeder  set  himself  to  improve  the  lading  quality, 
and  over  a  series  of  j'ears  selected  as  breeders  those  with  smaller- 
sized  bodies  which  have  proved  to  be  high  in  fecimdity,  mated 
with  males  which  embody  the  same  quality,  he  would  in  course 
of  time  evolve  a  distinctive  type.  Should  another  breeder  take 
the  same  original  stock,  more  especially  if  the  soil  conditions 
were  favourable  to  the  purpose  in  view,  selecting  continuously 
for  quantity  and  quality  of  flesh,  for  rapidity  of  growth  in  the 
chickens,  for  softness  of  bone,  and  to  some  extent  for  size,  he 
would  evolve  a  totally  different  strain — one  in  which  egg  pro- 
duction would  be  very  much  lower  than  that  first  named.  And 
if  a  third  breeder  set  out  to  produce  Bantams,  he  could  ultimately 
attain  that  object,  although  it  would  take  much  longer  to  realize. 
In  each  of  these  the  racial  characters  could  be  maintained  pure, 
the  differences  being  in  size,  type,  and  leading  productiveness. 
I  do  not  say  that  as  a  question  of  economics  the  ends  in  view 
could  not  be  arrived  at  more  speedily  by  the  introduction  of 
alien  blood.  In  doing  so,  however,  other  changes  would  probably 
result,  modifying  the  distinctive  racial  characters. 

Breed  versus  Strain. — We  have  been  accustomed  to  hear  and 
read  that  strain  or  family  is  of  greater  importance  than  breed. 
Nearly  all  pedigrees,  human  and  animal,  are  built  uj)  on  the 
assumj)tion  that  such  is  the  case.  It  is  often  stated  that  "  good 
laying  is  a  question  of  strain,  and  not  of  breed,''  which  is  an 
assumption  yet  to  be  jjroved.  Such  declarations,  however  firmly 
and  honestly  they  may  be  believed,  do  not  settle  the  problem. 


SELECTION  AND  BREEDING  53 

The  more  we  prove,  the  more  evident  are  other  considerations. 
Had  the  statement  quoted  been  reversed,  and  made  to  read  that 
"  good  lajdng  is  a  question  of  breed,  and  not  of  strain,''  it  would 
have  been  equally  uncertain.  Such  does  not,  however,  settle  it, 
either  theoretically  or  practically.  There  are  considerations  in- 
volved which  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  a  bald  statement  of  the 
kind  quoted  reveals  but  a  part,  perhaps  a  very  small  part,  of  the 
truth.  My  own  view  is  that  breed  and  strain  and  environment 
are  all  intimately  associated,  as  are  feeding  and  general  manage- 
ment. 

In  the  absence  of  definite  and  reliable  information  as  to  the 
productiveness  of  fowls  in  the  countries  of  their  origin,  it  may  be 
assumed  that  the  average  in  eggs  or  flesh  is  fairly  even,  when  the 
birds  are  bred  in  a  semi-natural  manner,  apart  from  selection  on 
special  lines.  By  this  is  meant  that  there  are  limitations  to  the 
changes  induced  by  domestication.  It  may  be  accepted  that 
under  favourable  conditions  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  each 
individual  hen  will  be  multiplied  at  least  threefold,  and  in  other 
cases  the  size  of  body  will  be  increased  by  50  to  100  per  cent., 
where  the  natural  food  conduces  to  that  result,  as  compared 
with  the  wild  progenitor.  Whilst  there  are  exceptional  layers 
and  fuie-fleshed  chickens  met  with  in  all  countries,  these  are 
comparatively  few,  except  where  careful  breeding  has  prevailed. 
So  far  as  my  observations  have  gone,  these  show  that,  apart  from 
specialization,  the  great  majority  of  hens  kept  upon  ordinary 
farms  in  other  countries  as  well  as  our  own  do  not  produce  more 
than  seventy  to  eighty  eggs  per  annum,  and  that  few  fowls  are 
more  than  5  to  6  pounds  in  weight  of  body.  The  exceptions  met 
with  do  no  more  than  prove  the  rule.  In  this  connection  I 
cannot  speak  as  to  Asia,  whence  we  have  received  the  greater 
number  of  large-bodied  fowls.  How  far  these  latter  are  the 
results  of  special  breeding  or  of  environmental  influences  it  is 
impossible  to  say ;  j)robably  both  have  had  a  share.  Up  to  this 
point,  therefore,  it  would  appear  that  breed  is  of  lesser  im- 
portance, for,  if  what  is  here  stated  be  correct,  it  was  not  until 
the  application  of  selection  on  rigid  lines,  with  the  object  of  secur- 
ing prolificacy  or  enhanced  flesh  development,  that  greater  results 
were  attained. 

We  are,  however,  at  once  faced  with  a  difiiculty  by  no  means 
easily  overcome — namely,  that  the  introduction  of  a  new  type  or 
breed,  either  by  importation  or  combination  of  existing  races, 
yields  remarkably  uniform  results.  Variations  there  will  always 
be.  Nature  works  with  plastic  materials.  A  hundred  influences 
may  bring  these  about,  of  which  we  know  nothing.     It  is  well 


54  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

known  that  a  breeder  may  sell  ten  lots  of  pullets  of  the  same 
breed,  strain,  and  age,  to  as  many  customers,  everj'  one  of  which 
will  give  different  results.  He  maj^  rear  a  hundred  pullets  from 
the  same  parents,  under  like  conditions,  and  the  variations  in 
this  respect  may  range  anywhere  from  50  to  150  eggs;  or  he 
may  grow  fifty  chickens,  and  not  more  than  half  a  dozen  will 
weigh  exactly  the  same  when  killed  for  market.  The  most  re- 
liable results  are  met  with  by  dependence  iipon  breed  rather 
than  strain.  A  common  mistake  is  made  in  assuming  that  heavy 
laying  is  modern.  More  than  thirty  years  ago  I  was  interested 
in  an  experiment  in  which  a  dozen  White  Leghorn  pullets  gave 
an  average  of  156  eggs  in  their  first  laying  year,  and  that  mthin 
less  than  a  decade  of  the  introduction  of  the  breed  into  this  country. 
That  could  not  be,  and  was  not,  attributable  to  strain;  other 
factors  must  have  conduced  to  the  result.  Some  of  these  ex- 
treme laj'Crs  are  merely  mutants.  It  may  be  accepted,  therefore, 
that  the  unity  of  variabilitj'  is  not  the  individual,  nor  is  it  the 
famil}',  but  the  race. 

Limitations  of  Strain. — In  speaking  of  strain  or  family,  it  may 
be  well  to  inquire  what  is  meant  by  the  term.  Usualty  it  refers 
to  a  few,  in  some  cases  very  few,  generations  bred  along  the 
same  lines.  How  manj^  of  our  utility  fowls  conform  to  these 
requirements  ?  Not  very  many.  Even  with  these  the  lineage 
is  not  what  can  be  called  pure.  We  should  remember  that 
within  ten  generations  every  specimen  may  have  2,046  ancestors, 
that  each  bird  is  but  a  bundle  of  influences  handed  down  to  it, 
and  that  latent  qualities  and  characters  may  cause  reversion  to 
an  ancestral  type  unknown,  and  therefore  unsuspected.  As 
Professor  Eugene  Davenport  saj^s:  "The  differences  that  do 
exist  within  the  same  family  serve  to  show  the  wide  divergencies 
possible  with  the  same  hereditary  elements,  although,  in  study- 
ing adults,  some  allowance  must  be  made  for  differences  in  de- 
velopment due  to  external  causes."  There  is  a  further  point 
which  demands  attention — namely,  that  families  become  ex- 
hausted much  sooner  than  do  breeds,  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
former  are  usually  selected  much  more  closely  than  are  the 
latter,  in  which  case  the  reserves  for  maintenance  of  virility  are 
smaller.  As  the  selection  for  definite  external  characteristics 
are  often  antagonistic  to  productiveness,  so  the  extreme  or  hasty 
development  of  the  economic  qualities  leads  to  degeneracy  by 
the  tax  upon  the  system;  these  are  abnormal,  and  have  to  be 
paid  for  in  one  way  or  the  other.  It  wiU  thus  be  seen  that,  whilst 
strain  has  a  place,  it  is  only  one  factor  among  many,  and  if  unduly 
exalted  may  be  harmful  rather  than  helpful. 


SELECTION  AND  BREEDING  55 

To  summarize  the  question  here  dealt  with,  whilst  absolute 
conclusions  cannot  be  set  forth,  there  is  enough  evidence  to  show 
that  strain  has  been  unduly  exalted,  and  has  no  claim  for  the 
first  position.  In  my  judgment,  economic  development,  either 
of  eggs  or  flesh,  is  first  determined  by  breed,  with  the  capacity 
for  increase  in  either  direction,  plus  strain  as  a  result  of  careful 
selection,  plus  environment,  plus  change  of  conditions  from  time 
to  time,  plus  food,  plus  early  breeding,  plus  proper  management, 
and  plus  a  score  of  influences  of  which  little  or  nothing  is  known. 

Structure  of  Body. — The  experience  of  all  breeders  is  that  it  is 
impossible  to  breed  without  variation.  That  is  true  in  regard 
to  external  characters,  and  equally  so  with  economic  qualities; 
were  it  not  so,  breeding  would  be  as  easy  as  it  is  now  difficult. 
What  are  commonly  called  "  sports  " — that  is,  exceptional  and 
unexpected  departures  from  the  normal — are  usually  mutations 
without  power  of  transmission  of  their  special  qualities  to  future 
generations,  though  that  is  not  always  the  case,  because  many 
varieties  of  breeds  have  originated  in  this  manner  and  are  some- 
times permanent.  Abnormal  laying  may  also  be  so  classed.  If 
variations  were  easily  transmitted  from  one  generation  to  another, 
we  should  lose  the  measure  of  fixity  we  now  possess,  and  there 
would  be  no  certainty  in  breeding.  At  the  same  time,  improve- 
ment must  be  through  the  individuals,  or,  as  stated  by  Professor 
Eugene  Davenport,*  "  the  excellence  of  breeding  is  mainly 
shown  in  the  capacity  for  development,"  which  may  include 
every  part  and  every  function  of  the  body.  Capacity  and  fulfil- 
ment, however,  are  not  the  same ;  that  all  poultry  possess  greater 
capacity  than  is  developed  is  evident. 

It  is  desirable  to  inquire  how  far  it  may  be  possible  to  form  a 
judgment  as  to  economic  qualities  by  the  shape  and  structure 
and  general  conformation  of  each  indi\'idual,  presuming  that 
these  are  in  accordance  with  the  general  type  of  the  breed  or  race. 
It  is  undovibtedly  true  that  we  cannot  expect  a  merely  mechanical 
grading,  working  with  the  exactitude  of  a  barometer;  but  it  is 
within  general  experience  that  functional  development  is  in 
correlation  with  general  appearances.  The  signs  which  mark 
meat  breeds  of  cattle  from  dairy  stock  are  evident,  though  in  the 
latter  there  are  great  variations  so  far  as  milk  yield  is  concerned; 
that,  however,  is  due  to  development  of  the  capacity  already 
present. 

We  are  justified  in  expecting  that,  as  a  general  guide  in  selection, 
there  are  indications  of  service  to  the  breeder,  though  these 
may  not  be  absolute.  The  most  we  can  expect  is  that  in  this 
*  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  p.  655. 


56 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


way  the  latent  capacity  can  be  discerned.     Development  of  that 
capacity  will  depend  upon  other  influences. 

If  the  structure  of  fowls  is  considered,  we  are  at  once  met  with 
a  fact  that  the  best  quality  of  flesh  is  found  on  the  breast.  The 
object  of  all  who  seek  to  breed  first-class  table  fowls  is  an  abun- 
dance of  breast  meat,  with  as  little  as  possible  elsewhere;  this  is 
secured  by  expanding  the  muscles  covering  the  sternum,  and,  as 
a  consequence,  development  is  almost  entirely  in  that  direction. 
Invariably  is  this  associated  with  large  wings,  for  the  flesh  on 

cither  side  of  the  sternum 
forms  the  motor  muscles  of  the 
flights.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
developing  the  laying  powers 
of  a  hen,  thei'c  is  enlargement 
of  the  egg  organs,  for  one  of  the 
best-known  facts  in  connection 
with  every  form  of  life  is  that 
use  increases,  and  disuse  dim- 
inishes, size;  or,  as  Darwin 
puts  it:  "Increased  use  or 
action  strengthens  muscles, 
glands,  sense  organs,  etc.;  and 
disuse,  on  the  other  hand, 
weakens  them.  .  .  .  The  flow 
of  blood  is  greatly  increased 
towards  any  part  which  is  per- 
forming work,  and  sinks  again 
when  the  part  is  at  rest.  Con- 
sequently, if  the  work  is  fre- 
quent the  vessels  increase  in 
size,  and  the  part  is  better 
nourished."*  As  the  egg  or- 
gans of  a  fowl  must  neces- 
sarily lie  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  body,  if  these  are  specially 
developed  it  will  be  found  that  the  entire  part  is  large  as  com- 
pared with  breeds  or  families  bred  for  table  or  breast  properties. 
It  should  here  be  pointed  out  that  the  posterior  part  of  a  hen  is 
greater  than  that  of  a  cock,  for  the  simple  reason  that  she  has  to 
provide  for  egg  organs,  and  he  has  not.  At  the  same  time  the 
structure  of  the  male  of  a  highly  fecund  or  a  full-fleshed  breed  or 
family  conforms  to  the  type  of  the  race  ;  and  a  further  point  is 
to  be  noted — namely,  that  in  heavy  lading  birds  the  legs  are  set 
well  apart  to  give  play  to  the  egg  organs. 

*  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  1285. 


Fig.  2. — Type  of  General  Purpose 
Fowl. 


SELECTION  AND  BREEDING 


57 


Fig.  3. — Type  of  Table  Fowl. 


Lining  a  Fowl. — In  "  Races  of  Domestic  Poultry  "  will  be 
found  other  considerations  in  this  direction.  In  practice,  there- 
fore, to  test  the  respective 
qualities  of  any  fowl,  a  me- 
dian line  should  be  drawn 
right  through  the  centre  of 
the  body  to  the  legs.  If  a 
greater  bulk  of  the  body  lies 
in  front  of  this  imaginarj^ 
line  (Fig.  3),  the  fowl  may 
be  classed  among  table 
varieties,  and  its  position 
therein  will  be  determined 
by  the  extent  of  its  develop- 
ment, though,  of  course, 
quality  and  flavour  of  flesh 
are  also  to  be  taken  into 
consideration.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  greater  bulk  of  its  body  lies  behind  this  median  line 
(Fig.  4),  that  will  indicate  capacity  for  lajdng,  such  also  being 

determined  by  the  de- 
gree.  There  are,  how- 
ever, several  races  of 
poultry  whose  outline 
is  represented  by  the 
letter  Y,  or  by  the 
letter  U  upon  legs 
(Fig.  2),  m  that  they 
are  almost  equally 
balanced  upon  both 
sides  of  this  imaginary 
line;  such  we  place 
in  the  general  purpose 
class — that  is,  they  do 
not  excel  either  as 
layers  or  table  fowls, 
and  according  to  their 
development  upon 
either  side  will  be  their 
merits  in  the  directions 
named.  I  have  care- 
fully observed  large 
numbers  of  fowls  since  adopting  this  method  of  testmg  the 
qualities  of  poultry,  and  have  found  it  most  reliable — nay,  the 


Fig.  4. — Type  of  Laying  Fowl. 


58  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

only  true  way  of  determining  what  is  a  most  important  point, 
keeping  in  view  what  has  already  been  stated :  namely,  that  it 
will  not  indicate  actual  production  either  of  eggs  or  flesh.  It  should 
ever  be  remembered  that  excess  in  one  direction  is  always  at  the 
expense  of  the  other  quality ;  there  is  no  breed  or  individual  which 
is  at  the  same  time  a  prolific  layer  and  a  high-class  table  fowl. 

Size  of  Body  in  Relation  to  Production. — It  has  frequently  been 
observed  that  the  tendency  in  Britain  is  always  towards  increase 
of  size  of  body.  That,  in  my  view,  is  partly  climatic  and  partly 
due  to  abundant  feeding,  but  not  wholly  so,  otherwise  we  should 
be  a  race  of  giants.  It  is  mainly,  in  the  case  of  stock,  a  result  of 
deliberate  selection;  this  is  seen  in  cattle  as  well  as  poultry.  The 
idea  commonly  held  is,  the  bigger  the  better.  How  far  that  has 
been  carried  out  may  be  illustrated  by  Toulouse  and  Embden 
geese,  by  Bronze  turkeys,  by  Dorking  fowls,  and,  most  recent 
example  of  all,  the  White  Leghorn  fowl.  Big  breeds  are  re- 
ceived with  special  favour,  regardless  of  what  is  their  leading 
qualit3^  Much  harm  has  been  wrought  in  this  direction.  The 
ejEfect  of  increase  in  size  is  a  corresponding  increase  of  inertia 
and  often  reduction  of  functional  activity,  as  well  as  greater 
development  of  bone,  which  means  more  cost  for  food  during  the 
growing  stage.  Even  in  table  poultry  (although  with  these 
ultimate  size  must  be  considered,  as  "  per  pound  "  is  often  the 
standard)  the  biggest  are  not  the  best — that  is,  biggest  in  frame. 
What  is  wanted  most  of  all  is  the  capacity  for  flesh  development 
when  we  arrive  at  the  finishing  stage — that  is,  fattening.  Big- 
boned  birds  are  coarse  in  flesh;  further,  the  weight  of  meat  in 
relation  to  the  bone  and  offal  is  what  determines  the  real  value, 
not  the  total  weight. 

When  we  come  to  regard  egg  production,  experience  shows 
that,  as  a  general  rule,  permanently  and  continuous^,  the 
smaller  birds  are  the  better  layers,  and  that  with  increase  of  size 
of  body  above  the  racial  mean  there  is  a  reduction  of  fecundity. 
For  a  year  or  two,  by  careful  selection  and  better  treatment, 
even  hens  of  the  heavier  breeds  may  yield  high  averages,  but  the 
breeds  which  have  maintained  for  a  long  period  the  front  rank 
for  number  of  eggs  are  small  or  small  medium  in  size  of  body. 
That  is  equally  true  in  respect  to  individuals  within  a  breed; 
many  evidences  have  been  given  of  actual  experiences  in  this 
direction.  It  is  almost  always  the  case  that  the  best  layers  are 
small,  compact,  and  carry  no  surplus  bone  or  flesh.  One  of  the 
most  striking  evidences  of  this  was  published  by  Mr.  G.  A. 
Palmer*  in  relation  to  weights  of  pullets  entered  for  the  Utility 
*  Illustrated  Poultry  Record,  Juiic,  1911,  p.  408. 


SELECTION  AND  BREEDING 


59 


Poultry  Club's  Laying  Competition,  as  compared  with  their  posi- 
tion in  the  contest.     These  are  given  in  a  slightly  different  form: 


Total  Weights  of  Group. 

Leading  4  Pullets. 

Last  4  Pullets. 

Black  Leghorns 
White  Leghorns 

Buff  Orpingtons           

White  Orpingtons        

White  Wyandottes 

Buff  Plymouth  Rocks 

Rhode  Island  Reds 

lb.           oz.                     lb.           oz. 
11             4                      17           14 
11            6                    14          14 

18  4                  18           4 

19  3                  22           0 

16  2                  23           1 

17  4                  17           8 

18  10                  19          6 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  in  every  case  except  Buff  Orping- 
tons, which  were  the  same  weights,  the  best  layers  were  the 
smaller.  The  above  figures  refer  to  the  commencement  of  the 
contest.  Even  more  suggestive  are  the  averages  at  end  of  the 
competition,  as  follows : 


Average  Weights. 

Leading  Pullet.«. 

Last  Pullets. 

Black  Leghorns 
White  Leghorns 
Buff  Orpingtons 
■  White  Orpingtons 
White  Wyandottes      .  . 
Buff  Plymouth  Rocks 
Rhode  Island  Reds      . . 

lb.         oz, 
3           8 
3         14 
5         11 
()           0 

5  0 

6  1 
5           8 

lb.          oz. 

5  13 

6  3 
8           0 

7  2i 
G         12 
6         13^ 
5         14 

To  use  Mr.  Palmer's  own  words,  "  If  we  want  size  we  may  have  it, 
but  it  must  be  at  the  expense  of  something  else."  That  some- 
thing is  usually  fecundity.  Further,  what  is  stated  here  is  true 
in  all  other  forms  of  domestic  animals.  Egg  production  is  in 
inverse  ratio  to  size  of  body — that  is,  relative  to  the  mean  of  the 
race. 

Size  of  Body  in  Relation  to  Size  of  Egg.— That  the  size  of  egg 
as  produced  by  many  breeds  of  fowls  is  abnormal  may  be  ac- 
cepted, due  to  better  feeding  and  to  selection.  This  question  is 
dealt  with  from  another  aspect  in  Chapter  XV.  My  immediate 
purpose  is  to  show  that  the  size  of  egg  does  not  follow  that  of  the 


60  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

body.  With  the  exception  of  the  Dorking,  all  the  larger  breeds 
and  varieties  of  fowls  lay  comparatively  small  eggs  in  relation  to 
the  size  of  the  hen.  In  contradistinction  the  largest  eggs  are 
produced  by  breeds  which  are  small  or  small  medium  in  weight, 
as,  for  instance,  the  Minorca,  Andalusian,  Braekel,  and  Leghorn. 
Some  of  the  largest-bodied  fowls,  notably  the  Cochin  and  the 
Indian  (Cornish)  Game,  produce  small,  though  very  rich,  eggs. 
The  turkey  hen  lays  a  comparatively  small  egg,  very  little  larger 
than  that  from  many  hens,  though  the  body -weight  of  the  parent 
is  two  to  three  times  that  of  the  fowl.  I  do  not  suggest  that  the 
larger  eggs  contain  nutriment  to  the  extent  of  their  increased 
weight,  for  such  is  not  the  case ;  as,  however,  size  is  a  marketable 
factor,  that  must  be  considered.  Careful  selection  may  increase 
the  size  of  egg,  as  it  has  done  in  many  breeds,  but  appears  to  be 
more  easily  accomplished  with  small  than  large-bodied  races,  as, 
indeed,  is  attainment  of  greater  fecundity. 

Causes  of  Degeneracy. — That  there  is  a  constant  tendency  to 
degeneracy  as  a  result  of  domestication,  and  especially  of  modern 
methods  of  breeding,  cannot  be  questioned.  How  far  this  is  due 
to  curtailment  of  the  migratory  instinct  of  birds,  and  to  keeping 
upon  the  same  soil  generation  after  generation,  it  is  impossible 
to  suggest.  That  both  have  their  influence  may  be  accepted. 
We  know  that  crops  require  change  of  soil ;  upon  the  best  potato 
or  corn  lands  change  of  seed  is  important  to  secure  a  heavy  jdeld, 
in  spite  of  whatever  manure  msbj  be  applied.  This  is  a  subject 
demanding  careful  investigation,  and  is  discussed  in  the  next 
chapter.  Food  also  must  have  a  powerful  influence.  When 
birds  are  at  full  liberty  and  have  to  find  the  greater  part  of  their 
nutrition,  they  are  compelled  to  take  a  large  amount  of  exercise, 
which  in  turn  promotes  digestion.  If  they  are  restricted  in  their 
range,  provided  with  food  which  is  not  equally  good  as  is  Nature's 
diet,  and  for  which  they  have  to  expend  little  in  the  shape  of 
physical  effort,  there  is  a  weakening  of  the  muscles  and  organs, 
as  of  the  skeleton,  which  in  process  of  time  will  lead  to  enfeeble- 
ment.  Further  influences,  in  addition  to  those  named  below, 
are  breeding  from  immature  stock,  artificial  hatching  and  rearing, 
forced  laying  and  growth,  and  bad  conditions  generally.  I  am 
not  suggesting  that  these  may  not  be  counteracted,  but  that  will 
only  be  by  recognition  of  these  influences  and  constant  efforts 
to  prevent  them.  It  is  not  what  takes  place  in  one  or  two  years, 
but  the  accumulation  of  influences,  we  have  to  guard  against. 
To  be  forewarned  should  be  forearmed.  The  importance  of  this 
question  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized,  as  weakened  parents 
mean  chickens  low  in  vigour. 


SELECTION  AND  BREEDING  61 

Line  Breeding. — The  meaning  of  this  term  is  that  the  birds 
chosen  for  reproductive  purposes  shall  be  restricted  to  individual 
members  within  the  same  line  of  descent.  As  a  consequence 
there  is  a  measure  of  relationship,  though  that  may  be  more  or 
less  remote;  it  is,  however,  present.  Such  is  distinct  from  in- 
breeding, considered  below,  for  in  that  case  the  relatives  are  close 
in  blood.  That  line  breeding,  in  the  hands  of  a  careful  breeder, 
makes  for  improvement  of  external  characteristics,  as,  in  fact, 
does  inbreeding  under  more  limited  conditions,  is  undeniable. 
Many  of  our  best  races  of  poultry,  as  of  other  stock,  have  at- 
tained their  present  stage  of  perfection  in  this  way.  As  an 
example  may  be  cited  the  White  Leghorn  in  Denmark.  Im- 
ported first  about  1880,  even  though  subsequent  introductions 
have  taken  place,  it  is  evident  that  the  stocks  are  mainly  of  the 
same  line  of  descent;  that  is  also  true  of  the  Pekin  duck  in 
Britain.  What,  however,  has  to  be  taken  into  account  is  the 
distribution  over  a  considerable  area,  and  the  keeping  and  rear- 
ing under  different  sets  of  conditions,  the  effect  of  which  appears 
to  be  considerable.  What  is  here  meant  is  that,  supjjosing 
chickens  from  the  same  parent  stock  are  scattered  widely,  there 
would  be  much  less  danger  resultant  from  mating  together  birds 
in,  say,  the  fourth  and  subsequent  generations,  than  if  these  had 
been  continuously  bred  on  the  same  place ;  in  this  waj^  the  fourth 
stock  of  breeders  would  be  third  cousins.  Such  a  system,  properly 
carried  out,  and  all  the  time  with  rigid  selection  for  constitutional 
vigour,  is  a  safe  one  for  the  breeder  who  is  able  or  finds  it  worth 
his  while  to  give  the  necessary  time  and  attention  to  the  work. 
For  egg  and  flesh  production,  my  own  opinion  is  that  it  is  not  of 
the  same  value  as  for  racial  points.  Professor  Eugene  Davenport 
shows  clearly  the  disadvantages  of  line  breeding  as  follows:* 
"  The  chief  danger  in  line  breeding  is  that  the  breeder  will  select 
by  pedigree,  abandoning  real  individual  selection.  A  line-bred 
pedigree  is  valuable  or  dangerous  in  exact  proportion  as  the  in- 
dividuals have  been  bred  up  to  grade.  .  .  .  The  only  requirement 
is  not  to  abandon  individual  selection.  A  pedigree  is  not  a  crutch 
on  which  incompetence  can  lean,  it  is  guaranty  of  blood  lines." 

Inbreeding. — There  is  a  strong  tendency  at  the  present  time 
on  the  part  of  scientists  and  experimenters  to  urge  the  adoption 
of  close  breeding,  largely  due  to  the  necessity  for  this  system  in 
working  on  Mendelian  lines.  That  inbreeding  has  had  a  power- 
ful influence  in  perfecting  breeds  and  families  is  true.  What  we 
have  to  remember  is,  that  the  impulse  given  relates  to  the  bad  as 
well  as  the  good  characters;  therefore,  if  powerful  in  one  direc- 
*  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  p.  611. 


62  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

tion,  it  is  equally  so  in  the  other.  Where  the  main  object  is 
production  of  eggs  and  of  flesh,  the  question  is  entirely  different, 
for  these  depend  more  upon  natural  vigour,  ^ilus  capacity,  than 
anj'thing  else;  whatever  weakens  these  is  fatal  to  success.  So 
far  as  I  am  aware,  there  is  no  really  inbred  family  which  has  for 
long  maintained  its  productiveness  without  outcrossing,  or  even 
the  introduction  of  alien  blood.  I  do  not  propose  to  discuss  this 
matter  at  length,  for  whilst,  in  the  hands  of  skilled  breeders, 
more  especially  those  who  are  able  to  operate  uj)on  a  large  scale 
and  to  make  selection  from  a  considerable  number,  inbreeding 
may  from  time  to  time  be  adopted,  the  risks  of  loss  of  vigour  and 
fertility  are  so  considerable  that  the  ordinary  farmer  or  poultry 
breeder  is  well  advised  to  avoid  such  method;  already  there  is 
far  too  much  of  it,  with  degeneracy  as  a  result.  Even  though 
there  might  be  apparently  no  immediate  evidences  of  loss,  it 
must  again  be  pointed  out  that  the  ultimate  issue  will  be  un- 
satisfactory. Inbreeding  tends  to  enfeeblement  and  loss  of 
resistant  power,  so  that  the  birds  are  unable  to  combat  attacks 
of  disease  germs  to  the  same  extent  as  when  more  naturally  bred, 
and  are  more  amenable  to  malign  influences.  The  degiee  of 
domestication — that  is,  in  respect  to  the  methods  and  conditions 
— will  determine  rapidity  of  influence.  What  may  be  of  limited 
effect  when  fowls  are  on  range,  and  the  great  law  of  surx^val  of 
the  fittest  has  full  play,  is  completely  changed  when  selection 
for  mating  is  artificial,  and  conservation  of  the  least  fit  is  prac- 
tised. Epidemics,  however,  and  also  general  mortality,  are  but 
the  expression  of  inability  to  withstand  attacks  of  enemies,  in 
which  case  those  that  succumb  are  the  weaker  birds. 

Constitutional  Vigour. — The  forces  which  are  at  work  milita- 
ting against  the  maintenance  of  physical  vigour  and  finictional 
activity,  though  the  latter  is  sometimes  temporaril}^  present  to 
a  degree  when  the  former  is  absent,  are  so  many  and  varied  that 
the  questions  involved  are  of  supreme  importance  to  every 
poultry-breeder,  whatever  may  be  the  scope  of  his  operations. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  state  that  in  this  direction  there  has  been  a 
distinct  retrogression  within  recent  j^ears,  not  only  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  but  elsewhere.  I  am  firmly  of  opinion  that  the  increases 
of  loss  by  death  in  shell  during  the  embryonic  period  may  to  a 
large  extent  be  explained  in  this  way;  that  the  huge  mortality 
of  chickens  in  our  o^vn  land,  as  in  America  and  Belgium,  has 
arisen  in  part  from  the  same  cause;  and  that  what  is  known  as 
"  blackhead  "  in  turkeys,  which  has  so  smitten  this  section  of 
the  industry  in  the  eastern  areas  of  the  United  States,  though 
enhanced   by  other  influences,  has  been   aggravated    by  loss  of 


SELECTION  AND  BREEDING  63 

constitutional  vigour  in  the  parent  stock.  A  further  result  is 
the  immediate  loss  which  takes  place  in  other  directions,  notably 
fecundity  of  hens,  and  fertility  in  eggs,  and  flesh  development, 
though  the  latter  is  least  evident.  Some  suggestive  observations 
have  been  made  at  Cornell  University  bearing  upon  this  point.* 
These  experiments  were  conducted  over  a  period  of  two  years, 
the  results  of  which  are  very  striking.  Flocks  of  White  Leghorns 
and  Plymouth  Rocks  proved  so  unequal  in  growth  that  they  were 
divided  into  strong  and  weak,  respecting  which  observations  were 
carefull}^  tabulated.  It  was  found  (1)  that  in  all  cases  the  weaker 
birds  consumed  more  food  per  dozen  eggs  produced  than  the 
stronger,  probably  due  to  the  latter  proving  better  foragers; 
(2)  that  the  number  and  value  of  eggs  produced  and  the  profits 
made  were  greater  from  the  strong  flocks  than  the  weak ;  (3)  that 
the  mortality  in  adult  birds  was,  in  the  main,  greater  in  the 
weak  than  in  the  strong;  and  (4)  that  the  percentage  fertility  of 
eggs,  of  chickens  hatched,  weight  of  chickens  when  hatched,  and 
of  chicks  living  at  the  end  of  six  weeks,  were  in  favour  of  the 
stronger  birds.  Such  data  are  confirmed  by  practical  experience, 
though  not  hitherto  tabulated  so  completely. 

As  to  the  external  evidences  of  constitutional  vigour,  I  quote 
from  a  bulletin  published  by  the  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  U.S.A.,  in  which  it  is  stated: 

"  The  bird  of  high  constitutional  vigour  will  have  a  thrifty 
ajjpearance,  with  a  bright  eye  and  clean,  well-kept  plumage. 
The  head  will  be  broad  and  relatively  short,  giving  in  its  appear- 
ance i^lain  indications  of  strength.  It  will  show  nothing  of  the 
long-drawn-out,  sickly,  crow-like  appearance  of  the  head  which 
is  all  too  common  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  average  poultry- 
yard.  The  beak  will  be  relatively  short  and  strong,  thus  corre- 
lating with  the  general  conformation  of  the  head.  Comb  and 
wattles  will  be  bright  in  colour  and  present  a  full-blooded,  healthy, 
vigoroiis  aj)pearance. 

"  The  body  of  the  bird  of  high  constitutional  vigour  will  be 
broad  and  deep  and  well  meated,  with  a  frame  well  knit  together, 
strong  in  the  bone,  but  not  coarse.  In  fowls  of  strong  constitu- 
tion and  great  vigour  all  the  secondary  sexual  differences  will 
usually  be  well  marked ;  in  other  words,  the  males  will  be  mascu- 
line to  a  degree  in  appearance  and  behaviour,  and  the  females 
correspondingly  feminine.  It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  this 
last  is  a  general  rule  to  which  there  are  occasional  exceptions.''! 

To  what  is  here  stated  may  be  added  activity  of  habit,  alert- 

*  "  Constitutional  Vigour  in  Poultry,"  by  C.  A.  Rogers,  Bulletin  318,  1912. 
t  "  The  Biology  of  Poultry-Keeping,"  by  Dr.  Raymond  Pearl,  1913. 


64  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

ness  of  vision,  and  capacity  for  foraging,  with  prononncecl  ability 
in  respect  to  self-defence.  It  may,  however,  be  pointed  out  that, 
in  the  table  breeds  of  poultry  of  the  higher  grades,  the  constitii- 
tional  vigour  is  not  so  great  under  all  conditions  as  with  the  egg- 
producing  and  general  purpose  races. 

Simplicity  in  Selection. — In  "  Races  of  Domestic  Poultrj^  "  an 
attemj)t  is  made  to  discern  how  far  external  characters  are  indic- 
ative of  and  related  to  economic  cj^vialities.  It  is  admitted  that 
reliable  knowledge  upon  this  question  is  limited  in  the  extreme. 
My  present  purpose  is  to  show  that  the  multiplication  of  arbi- 
trary characters,  and  breeding  for  their  development,  are  antago- 
nistic to  the  rules  of  practical  breeding  and  productiveness;  it 
is  here  where  the  great  cleavage  between  the  fancier  exhibitor 
and  the  business  poultryman  arises.  The  standards  adopted  bj' 
the  former  increase  and  magnify  minor  points,  which  to  a  very 
large  degree  determine  success  in  exhibitions;  as  a  result, 
economic  qualities  are  sacrificed.  Elaboration  in  this  direction 
tends  to  greater  variation.  It  is  for  that  reason  in  Germany  and 
Holland  chstinct  standards  of  points  for  utility  poultry  have 
been  adopted  from  those  promulgated  by  breeders  for  exhibition, 
as  the  latter  are  found  to  be  in  reverse  ratio  to  the  productive 
equalities,  and  frequentlj^  opposed  to  natural  vigour.  What  we 
have  to  aim  for  is  simplification  rather  than  complexity,  to  redvice 
the  number  of  selective  characters  rather  than  theii*  increase, 
which  latter  explains  why  highly-bred  stock  are  often  the  least 
profitable.  "  The  breeds  in  which  many  requirements  have  been 
exacted  contemporaneously  have  had  a  chequered  history,  full 
of  ups  and  downs,  and  the  end  is  not  j^et — nor  will  the  end  be 
in  sight  until  the  custom  is  abandoned  of  requiring  at  the  same 
time  so  many  points  as  to  put  the  matter  beyond  the  range  of 
practical  selection."*  There  are  many  examples  among  the 
respective  breeds  of  poultry  proving  the  truth  of  what  is  here 
stated.  Exaltation  of  existing  and  introduction  of  new  arbitrary 
points  have  ruined  several  breeds,  and  are  destroying  the  produc- 
tive qualities  of  others.  The  practical  breeder  of  poultry  should 
first  of  all  make  selection  in  respect  to  constitutional  vigour; 
the  second  consideration  is  suitability  in  accordance  with  the 
product,  whether  eggs  or  flesh,  he  desires  to  secure;  third,  suit- 
ability of  the  birds  to  envnonmental  conditions;  and,  lastly, 
type  and  external  character,  takmg  care  that  the  latter  are 
not  antagonistic  to  what  is  stated  before.  In  this  way  racial 
distinctions  can  be  maintained  without  sacrifice  of  more  im- 
portant factors. 

*  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  by  Professor  Eugene  Davenport,  p.  fio?. 


SELECTION  AND  BREEDING  65 

Parental  Influence. — In  polygamous  races  the  influence  of  the 
male  parent  must  always  be  much  greater  than  that  of  any 
individual  female,  so  far  as  the  flock  is  concerned.  For  example, 
if  a  cock  bird  be  mated  with  ten  hens,  and  from  each  of  the  latter 
a  score  of  chicks  are  produced,  every  female  will  have  a  half -share, 
it  may  be — though  upon  this  point  opinions  vary — in  twenty  and 
no  more,  whereas  the  male  bears  responsibility  for  half  of  all 
the  two  hundred  youngsters.  That  being  so,  whilst  it  is  impor- 
tant that  every  hen  shall  be  rightly  selected  and  have  the  capacity 
for  producing  chickens  embodying  the  desired  qualities,  it  is  of 
tenfold  greater  import  that  the  male  with  which  she  mates  shall 
possess  the  same  influence,  together  with  power  of  transmission. 
One  bad  hen  in  a  flock  will  involve  loss  to  the  extent  of  what  she 
does  or  does  not  do.  If  her  mate  be  inferior  or  incapable,  the 
damage  wrought  will  affect  all;  therefore,  selection  of  the  male 
demands  the  greater  care  and  repays  the  greater  trouble.  In 
my  younger  days  it  was  a  common  idea  that  the  male  was  every- 
thing, and  so  long  as  he  was  right  the  quality  of  hens  did  not 
matter.  To  some  extent  the  same  notion  still  prevails  among 
ordinary  farmers,  who  buy  pure-bred  males  annually  and  mate 
with  such  hens  as  they  have.  Then  came  a  reaction.  Selection 
of  hens,  more  especially  on  the  introduction  of  trap-nesting, 
swung  the  pendulum  to  the  opposite  extreme.  We  seem  now  to 
be  on  the  verge  of  reversing  once  more.  This  question  is  further 
discussed  in  Chapter  XXI.,  so  far  as  it  applies  to  egg  production. 

Leaving  out  all  questions  of  physical  defects,  there  are  certain 
general  guiding  principles  that  may  be  accepted.     These  are — 

The  male  primarily  influences  the  external  characters — namely, 
build,  type,  plumage,  and  action. 

The  female  primarih'  influences  size  of  body,  colour  of  skin 
and  legs,  constitution,  temperament,  and  habits. 

In  saying  thus  much  it  must  not  be  thought  that  the  opposite 
sex  has  no  share,  for  such  is  not  the  case.  Instances  are  by  no 
means  unknown  when  what  is  stated  above  seems  to  be  entirely 
reversed. 

Mendelism. — The  study  of  genetics  during  the  last  few  years 
has  received  a  large  amount  of  attention,  and  is  resultmg  in  a 
great  accession  of  knowledge,  which  should  ultimately  be  of  vast 
importance  to  the  breeder.  To  a  large  extent  observations  made 
are  on  what  are  known  as  Mendelian  lines — that  is,  following  the 
discoveries  made  some  years  ago  by  an  Austrian  monk  named 
Gregor  Mendel,  which  for  a  considerable  period  were  disregarded, 
as  is  frequentl}'  the  fate  of  pioneers.  I  do  not  propose  to  enter 
into  a  detailed  description  of  this  theory,  for  that  should  be 

5 


m  POULTRY  HUISBAKDKY 

studied  at  first  hand  in  the  works  of  its  chief  exponents  in  this 
and  other  countries,  such  as  the  little  book  "  Mendelism/'  by 
Professor  R.  C.  Punnett,*  or  in  Professor  W.  Bateson's  larger 
and  more  complete  work  entitled  "  Mendel's  Principles  of  Hered- 
ity." f  The  practical  application  of  this  theory,  however,  in  so 
far  as  eggs  and  flesh  production  are  concerned  has  yet  to  be 
demonstrated.  In  this  direction  Dr.  Raymond  Pearl  is  engaged 
in  researches  as  to  fecunditj'  at  the  Maine  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  U.S.A.  It  is  too  early  to  say  whether  Mendelism 
is  likely  to  help  in  this  direction.  Briefly  stated,  the  theory  is, 
to  quote  the  words  of  Professor  Bateson,J  that  "  the  bird  can 
be  no  longer  looked  ux)on  as  one  individual  whole,  but  it  must  be 
regarded  as  an  aggregate  of  diverse  factors.  .  .  .  Since  the  dif- 
ferent characteristics  depend  for  their  development  on  the  prea- 
ence  of  different  factors,  the  purity  of  a  bird  is  not  a  collective 
quantity,  but  one  which  must  be  separately  considered  in  respect 
to  each  of  the  several  factors  on  which  the  oharacteristics  of  the 
breed  depend."  That  much,  so  far  as  externals  are  concerned, 
is  a  great  accession  of  knowledge,  and  can  hardly  fail  to  be  of 
great  value  to  breeders  of  pure  stock,  both  for  the  perfecting  of 
existing  and  the  evolution  of  new  races.  The  suggestion  is  made 
that  the  factors  referred  to  exist  in  the  female  ovule  and  the 
male  element  which  fertilizes  it,  otherwise  they  could  not  appear 
in  regular  sequence  in  the  chickens.  How  far  what  are  known  as 
the  productive  qualities — that  is,  the  capacity  for  eggs  and  flesh 
— arise  in  this  way,  and  whether  such  can  be  increased,  have  yet  to 
be  determined ;  also  the  extent  to  which  environmental  influences 
and  food  contribute  to  these  results.  A  further  point  is  that 
certain  characters  exert  themselves  more  or  less  powerful^,  to 
which  the  terms  "  dominant  "  and  "  recessive  "  are  applied. 
These  are  explained  by  Professor  Bateson  in  the  same  article  as 
follows:  "When  the  character  is  due  simply  to  the  absence  of 
any  modifying  factor  there  can  be  no  mistake.  .  .  .  Such  char- 
acters are  called  '  recessive.'  Characters  which  are  due  to  the 
presence  of  some  factor  are  called  '  dominants,'  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  these  recessives."  For  example,  white  skin  is  said  to  be 
dominant  to  yellow,  and  the  fifth  toe  also;  so  that  when  two 
birds  are  mated,  one  a  possessor  and  the  other  not  of  either 
quality,  the  great  majority  of  the  progeny  will  follow  the  former. 
We  have  yet  to  learn  how  far  this  theory  applies  in  what  may  be 
termed   the   practical  qualities;   fiu'ther,   no   account   is   taken 

*  London,  Macmillan  and  Co.,  1905. 

t  Cambridge,  The  Univei-sity  Press,  1909. 

j  Illustrated  Poultry  Record,  June,  1910,  p.  466. 


SELECTION  AND  BREEDING  67 

of  the  tendency  to  variation  in  any  and  all  dii-ections.  Where 
danger  lies  is  that  for  appUcation  of  the  MendeMan  theories 
the  progeny  must  be  closely  interbred — in  fact,  between  brothers 
and  sisters  of  succeeding  generations — ^the  ill  effects  of  which  may 
be  minimized  to  some  extent  by  skilled  breeders,  but  cannot  be 
altogether  obviated.  Probably  we  have  here  an  explanation 
why  biologists  discount  the  objections  raised  against- close  in- 
breeding, for  without  that  Mendelism  is  non-existent,  so  far  as 
aj)plication  to  breeding  stock  is  concerned. 

Age  of  Breeding  Stock. — A  very  common,  but  none  the  less 
fallacious,  idea,  at  least  in  connection  with  poultry,  is  that  when 
the  power  of  reproduction  commences  that  is  the  right  period 
to  mate  up  the  stock  birds.  Such  is  not  suggested  for  cockerels 
as  for  pullets  to  the  same  extent.  Puberty  in  animals  long  ante- 
dates maturity.  It  is  not  contended,  however,  among  the 
higher  orders  that  mating  should  immediately  take  place  subse- 
quent to  attainment  of  that  stage  of  development.  The  process 
in  the  case  of  domesticated  fowls  is  the  same,  although  the  form 
diifers,  as  the  embryonic  stage  is  subsequent  to  production  of 
the  egg,  so  that  the  latter  must  contain  the  elements  for  forma- 
tion of  the  embryo.  As  a  consequence,  by  the  use  of  eggs  produced 
from  young  pullets,  and  even  to  a  greater  extent  if  these  are 
mated  with  young  cockerels,  the  chances  are  great  that  the  germs 
will  not  have  attained  the  maximum  of  vigour,  and  that  the  egg 
contents  are  not  at  the  full  measure  of  nutritive  elements.  For- 
tunately, there  is  no  waste  as  in  mammals,  for  the  avian  egg  is 
valuable  as  human  food.  Whilst,  therefore,  from  that  point  of 
view,  early  productiveness  should  be  encouraged — for  it  is  ap- 
parent that  unless  lajdng  commences  a  considerable  time  before 
maturity  is  attained  the  fecundity  will  be  less  than  would  other- 
wise be  the  case — the  eggs  should  not  be  used  for  hatching,  unless 
for  the  production  of  birds  to  be  killed  at  an  early  age.  It  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  the  reproductive  functions  are  most  active 
immediately  prior  to  maturity,  and  it  is  equally  evident  that  birds 
bred  thus  and  then  have  not  the  same  virility  of  constitution  as 
will  be  the  case  when  the  parents  are  older.  Sexual  activity  is 
not  always  accompanied  by  constitutional  vigour;  in  fact,  the 
reverse  is  often  true.  Further,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  better 
way  to  transmit  laying  capacity,  as  proved  by  early  laying  and 
high  fecundity,  is  not  to  use  such  birds  as  breeders  during  the 
tirst  period,  but  later,  when  they  have  attained  full  maturity. 
In  proof  of  what  is  here  stated,  I  am  not  acquainted  with  any 
records  relating  to  fowls,  but  in  a  paper  submitted  to  the  Eugenics 
Congress  of  London,  1912,  by  Dr.  Corrado  Gini,  of  the  Royal 


68  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Universitj^  Cagliari,  Italy,*  he  shows  that  when  mothers  are 
under  twenty  the  weight  of  infants  is  from  8  to  12  per  cent,  less 
than  when  they  are  above  that  age,  and  that  the  mortalitj^  of 
infants  at  the  Hague  in  1908  from  mothers  under  nineteen  years 
was  from  24  to  27  per  cent,  greater  than  when  they  were  twenty 
years  old  and  upwards.  This  may  in  some  measure  explam  the 
heavy  chicken  mortalitj^  of  which  manj^  breeders  have  complained. 
►Such  ol^servations,  together  with  practical  experience,  show- 
that,  with  the  exception  stated  above — namely,  to  secure  early 
eggs  for  the  production  of  chickens  and  ducklings  for  killing, 
which  can  do  no  harm — two  or  three  year  old  cocks  and  hens 
should  be  used  as  breeders  of  stock  birds  or  as  layers.  In  the  case 
of  turkeys,  I  am  certain  that  much  of  the  delicacj^  which  char- 
acterizes that  species  of  domestic  poidtry  has  its  origin  in  hatch- 
ing from  eggs  laid  and  vitalized  by  yearlings.  I  could  come  to 
no  other  conclusion  than  that  the  serious  epidemic  among  chickens 
which  devastated  Belgium  in  1912  and  1913,  when  hundreds  of 
thousands  died  either  during  the  embryonic  period  or  when  from 
two  days  to  three  weeks  old,  was  in  part  due  to  the  loss  of  resis- 
tant power  as  a  result  of  continued  breeding  from  immature 
parents.  On  the  other  hand,  whilst  three  years  for  hens  and  even 
less  for  cocks  may  be  the  practical  limit  of  age  for  breeding 
stock,  if  a  hen  es^Jecially  has  j)roved  to  be  a  mother  of  a  high 
average  of  chickens,  I  should  retain  her  even  longer. 

Selecting  the  Breeders. — It  should  ever  be  remembered  that 
only  a  percentage  of  any  flock  are  fitted  for  the  all-important 
work  of  reproduction.  What  that  percentage  is  no  one  can  say, 
as  it  varies  considerably.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  30  or  40  per 
cent,  of  the  birds  bred;  in  others  only  ten  out  of  each  hundred. 
A  safe  measure  for  general  purposes  will  be  to  say  that  20  per 
cent,  and  no  more  should  be  so  used.  In  this  way,  and  by 
careful  selection,  can  we  hope  to  maintain  or  improve  the  quality. 
Yet  one  of  the  chief  mistakes  which  is  made  by  farmers  especially 
is  breeding  from  the  entire  flock.  Many  there  are  who  will  intro- 
duce new  males  every  season,  and  take  eggs  for  hatching  from 
any  or  ail  of  the  hens,  so  that  there  is  no  selection  whatever,  and 
frequently  eggs  from  the  worst  are  used,  as  these  happen  to  be 
available  when  a  hen  has  become  broody.  The  plan  which  should 
always  be  adopted  is  to  carefully  select  the  breeders,  mating  them 
with  a  male  for  every  lot  of  ten  to  twenty  hens  in  accordance 
with  the  breed.  Each  Hock  should  be  placed  in  a  separate 
house,  to  which  a  run  maj^  be  attached  if  necessary,  though  that 
is  not  requisite  on  a  farm.  In  this  way  breeding  operations  are 
*  "  Problems  in  Eugenics,"  vol.  ii.,  London,  1913. 


SELECTION  AND  BREEDING  69 

controlled  as  far  as  that  is  possible ;  those  not  so  mated  will  form 
the  layers  of  eating  eggs.  Breeding  from  the  best  is  the  only 
true  method. 

Functional  Variations. — As  no  two  blades  of  grass,  and  cer- 
tainly no  two  fowls,  are  exactly  alike,  so  the  relative  productive- 
ness or  development  of  birds  varies  considerably.  I  have  been 
impressed  when  trap-nesting  hens  hatched  together  from  the 
same  parents,  and  kej)t  under  identical  conditions,  or  weighing 
chickens  during  the  growing  stage,  how  small  a  percentage  lay 
the  same  number  of  eggs  or  attain  exactly  the  same  degree  of 
growth  during  equal  periods ;  in  many  cases  the  recorded  results 
are  wide  in  the  extreme.  Professor  Davenport  points  out  that 
"  probably  no  fact  in  animal  physiology  is  of  more  far-reaching 
importance  than  is  this  marked  instance  of  functional  difference 
between  individuals."  He  further  states  that  "  functional  varia- 
tions may  be  accumulated  into  true  breed  distinctions,  and  that 
strains  of  animals  and  plants  may  be  permanently  established 
with  exceedingly  high  efficiency  in  desired  lines ;  indeed,  this  has 
been  already  accomplished,  though  we  are  still  far  short  of  what 
is  possible."  The  former  is  one  of  the  limitations,  as  the  latter 
is  the  hope,  of  the  practical  breeder.  What,  however,  has  always 
to  be  kept  in  view  is  that  an  undue  strain  upon  all  vital  functions 
tends  to  their  partial  or  entire  breaking  down  sooner  or  later. 


CfHAPTER  V 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOWL 

There  are  five  special  characteristics  which  distinguish  the 
skeleton  of  birds  from  that  of  mammals  (Fig.  5):  (1)  The 
greater  lightness  of  bone,  many  of  the  bones  containing  large  air 
cavities,  in  order  that  the  bird  may  be  able  to  rise  in  the  atmos- 
phere, not  only  by  reason  of  the  reduced  weight  to  carry,  but  also 
that  the  air  cavities  aid  in  the  flight.  (2)  The  marked  tendency 
of  bones,  at  first  distinct,  to  fuse  with  one  another  in  the  adult. 
This  is  present  to  a  certam  degree  in  all  animals,  but  to  a  lesser 
extent  in  mammals  than  in  birds.  If  we  compare  the  head-bones 
of  a  chicken  with  those  of  a  fully-developed  fowl,  we  find  a  marked 
proof  of  this  fusion.  (3)  Modifications  in  the  limb-gLrdles  and 
limbs,  fitting  the  bird  both  for  walking  and  for  flight.  (4)  Great 
length  of  vertebral  column,  with  elongation  and  flexibility  of 
neck,  the  neck  being  equal  in  length  to  rest  of  the  column.  (5)  The 
rigidity  of  the  body  proper,  which  in  itself  has  practically  no 
movements. 

Skeleton. — The  body  itself  differs  from  that  of  mammals,  as  it 
is  broad  in  front  and  narrow  behind.  The  backbone  is  flat,  and^ 
together  with  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck,  contains  the  spinal  column, 
but  at  the  posterior  end  is  a  continuation  known  as  the  pelvic 
girdle,  which  consists  of  three  bones,  and  the  whole  is  spoon- 
shaped  on  its  inner  side,  widening  out  at  the  back.  Below  the 
ilium,  next  to  the  body  proper,  is  a  depression  in  which  the 
kidneys  lie.  The  caudal  vertebrse  has  a  terminal,  called  the 
pygostyle,  holding  the  sickle  feathers  of  the  tail.  From  the 
backbone  spring  the  ribs,  of  which  there  are  seven  on  each  side. 
Two  of  these,  the  cervical  ribs,  are  short,  and  not  attached . 
to  the  breastbone,  or  sternum  ;  the  other  five,  known  as 
the  thoracic  ribs,  turn  backwards  at  first,  and  then  reverse, 
joining  the  sternum,  the  vertebral  portions  being  thicker  than 
the  sternal. 

70 


ANATOMY  OP  THE  FOWL  71 

Sternum. — The  sternum,  or  breastbone,  is  verj''  large,  and 
projects  back  far  bej^ond  the  ribs,  and  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  wall  of  the  abdomen.  This  is  a  spoon-shaped  blade  of  bone, 
wide  and  stout  in  front,  narrowing  in  the  middle  portion  of  its 
length,  but  widens  somewhat  behind,  forming  a  protection  to  the 
chief  organs,  which  lie  in  the  cavity  between  it,  the  backbone 
and  ribs.  The  keel  is  a  prominent  narrow  blade  attached  to  its 
outer  side,  slightly  thickened  in  front,  its  depth  depending  upon 
the  size  of  the  wings.  The  object  is  to  accommodate  the  muscles 
which  work  the  wings.  In  some  breeds  it  is  greatly  abbreviated, 
due  to  small  wings,  and  where  this  is  the  case  the  quantity  of 
muscle,  or  flesh,  carried  on  the  breast  is  relatively  small. 

Scapula  and  Furcula. — Connecting  the  sternum  with  the 
shoulder  is  a  stout  straight  bone,  the  point  of  connection  being 
termed  the  scapula,  known  as  the  coracoid,  near  which  are  two 
clavicles,  a  pair  of  slender  curved  bones,  whose  upper  ends  are 
slightly  expanded,  forming  the  furcula,  or  merry-thought.  This 
furcula  is  a  spring  used  in  working  the  wings,  and  it  varies  in 
accordance  with  their  size. 

Wings. — The  wings  of  a  bird  correspond  to  the  fore-limbs  of 
animals,  but  are  carried  upon  the  body.  When  folded  in  a  posi- 
tion of  rest,  the  three  parts  are  bent  on  each  other  like  the  letter 
Z,  the  elbow  pointing  backwards  and  the  arm  upwards.  The 
humerus,  or  bone  of  the  arm,  is  single,  slightly  curved,  and 
expanded  at  both  ends;  the  forearm  has  two  bones:  the  radius, 
slender  and  nearly  straight,  and  the  ulna,  much  stouter  and 
slightly  curved,  the  two  joining  at  either  end;  the  wrist  connects 
with  the  manus,  or  hand,  in  which  can  be  distinguished  a  thumb 
and  two  fingers,  more  or  less  rudimental.  This  mechanism,  to- 
gether with  the  feathers,  is  the  basis  of  an  instrument  of  loco- 
motion. On  the  posterior  border  of  the  hand,  forearm,  and  arm 
are  the  wing  feathers,  the  length  of  which  diminishes  nearer  the 
body. 

Legs  and  Feet. — The  hind-limb,  or  leg,  is  formed  for  walking 
and  perching.  It  is  long,  and  composed  of  a  femur,  or  thigh- 
bone, a  cylindrical,  slightlj^  curved  shaft  with  enlarged  ends;  of 
a  tibia,  or  leg-bone,  large,  stout,  and  nearly  straight,  though  in 
some  breeds  it  is  much  heavier  than  in  others ;  of  a  stout,  straight 
bone,  known  as  the  tarso-metarsus ;  of  an  ankle-joint;  and  of 
four  or  five  digits,  or  toes,  attached  to  the  foot.  Four  toes  is 
the  regular  number,  but  several  breeds  have  five.  These  toes 
are — the  hallux,  or  great  toe,  behind,  and  the  second,  third,  and 
fourth  toes  in  front,  the  third  being  largest.     Each  is  fitted  with 


72  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

a  claw.  A  fowl  walks  on  its  toes,  not  feet,  and  they  have  great 
power  in  gripping.  The  spur  of  the  cock  is  a  small,  irregular 
nodule  of  bone,  varying  in  size,  and  intended  for  defence.  The 
thigh  is  covered  with  muscle  and  sinew,  differing  in  quantity, 
according  as  a  fowl  chiefly  uses  its  pedal  limbs  or  wings. 

Head. — A  fowl's  head  is  small  in  relation  to  other  parts  of  its 
bod}',  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  long,  thin  column  of  verte- 
brae. The  characteristics  of  a  bird's  skull  are — (1)  Its  great  light- 
ness; (2)  the  marked  tendency  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium  to  fuse 
together,  most  of  the  cranial  sutures  being  closed  and  the  two 
outlines  of  the  bones  obliterated  by  the  end  of  the  first  year; 
(3)  the  large  size  of  the  orbits,  or  eye  spaces,  these  being  separated 
bj^  a  thin  vertical  plate ;  (4)  the  prolongation  of  the  face  forwards 
into  a  conical  toothless  beak.  The  head  is  composed  of  two  parts : 
a  cranium  and  a  face.  The  cranial  portion  is  a  somewhat  conical 
box  of  bone,  the  base  of  the  cone  forming  the  hinder  part  of  the 
skull,  and  the  apex  being  directed  forwards.  In  the  aperture 
thus  formed  are  placed  the  brain  and  eyes.  The  beak  is  divided 
into  a  superior,  or  iipper,  and  an  inferior,  or  under,  mandible. 
The  jaw,  or  superior  mandible,  has,  owing  to  a  peculiar  union 
with  the  cranium,  a  mobility  which  is  not  seen  in  mammalian 
animals.  The  two  nostrils  are  small,  and  the  olfactory  capsules 
remain  cartilaginous  throughout  life.  The  nasal  cavities  are 
separated  by  a  thin  piece  of  bone,  and  open  into  the  interior  of 
the  mouth  by  a  simple  slit,  long,  narrow,  and  longitudinal,  and 
furnished  with  small  indentations.  This  slit  opens  when  the 
bird's  head  is  turned  downwards,  or  in  its  natural  position,  and 
shuts  when  raised.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  fowls  when  they 
drink  are  obliged  to  raise  the  head,  otherwise  the  water  would 
run  out  of  the  nostrils.  The  lower  mandible  is  slightly  shorter 
than  the  ujjper.  Fowls  have  no  teeth  in  either  the  upper  or 
lower  mandible.     The  brain  is  situate  in  the  back  jiart  of  the  skull. 

Digestive  Organs. — Dr.  Lardner  thus  describes  the  digestive 
organs  of  birds:*  "  The  oesophagus  at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck 
enters  the  first  stomach,  called  the  crop,  which  is  an  enlarged 
pouch  enclosed  by  membranous  walls,  the  form  and  magnitude 
of  which  differ  in  different  species. 

Crop. — The  crop  is  most  developed  in  granivorous  birds,  less 
so  in  birds  of  prey,  and  is  altogether  absent  in  the  ostrich  and 
most  piscivorous  birds.  Immediately  below  the  crop  there  is  a 
contraction  of  the  canal,  followed  by  the  dilatatioji  called  the 
ventriculus  succenturiatus. 

*  "  Handbook  of  Animal  Physics,"  p.  483.     London:  Locicwood  and  Co. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOWL 


73 


Gizzard. — Although  this  enlargement  is  not    considerable,  it 
jDlays  an  important  part  in  the  phenomena  of  digestion,  its  sides 


Fig.  5. — Skeleton  of  the  Fowl. 


1.'  Skull. 

2.  Eye  cavity. 

3.  Nasal  cavity. 

4.  Upper  mandible. 

5.  Lower  mandible. 

6.  Vertebracof  the  neck 

7.  Digit. 

8.  Bones  of  hand. 

9.  Digit. 


10.  Ulna. 

11.  Radius. 

12.  Humerus. 

13.  Backbone. 

14.  Ribs. 

15.  Scapula. 

If).  Clavicles    (meny- 

thought). 
17.  Acetabulum. 


18.  Ischium. 

19.  Pygostyle. 

20.  Femur  bone.  [bone. 

21.  Sternum  or  breast - 

22.  Tibia. 

23.  Tarso-metarsus. 

24.  Spur. 

25.  Back  toe. 

26.  Toes. 


being  covered  with  glandulous  follicles,  which  secrete  a  jnice  anal- 
ogous to  the  gastric  juice.  This  ventricle  is  larger  in  birds  which 
are  destitute  of  the  crop  than  in  those  which  have  that  organ. 


74  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

This  second  stomach  is  succeeded  by  a  third,  the  gizzard,  in  which 
the  chyniification  of  the  food  is  completed.  This  part  of  the 
digestive  apparatus  is  furnished  with  a  muscular  tunic,  which 
has  great  thickness  and  power  in  granivorous  birds.  In  the 
ostrich  its  strength  is  so  great  that  the  hardest  substances  are 
crushed  by  it.  It  seems  to  be  endowed  with  the  functions  of  an 
apparatus  of  mastication.  The  intestine  which  follows  this 
consists,  as  in  mammifers,  of  a  small  and  large  tube  of  different 
lengths,  the  former  being  much  the  longer  and  coiled  up  in  folds, 
as  in  mammifers.  At  the  point  where  the  small  enters  the  large 
intestine,  two  tubes,  called  csecums,  enter  it,  which  are  closed  at 
the  upper  ends.  These  are  generally  long  and  large  in  graniv- 
orous and  omnivorous  birds,  but  little  more  than  rudimentary 
in  birds  of  prey. 

Intestines. — The  thorax  and  the  abdomen  are  not,  as  in  mam- 
mifers, separated  by  a  diaphragm  muscle ;  and  the  liver,  which  is 
very  voluminous,  fills  the  chief  part  of  both  cavities.  It  is  divided 
into  two  lobes,  nearly  equal  in  size,  from  which  issue  two  ducts, 
which,  after  uniting,  open  into  the  intestine.  There  is  generally 
a  gall-bladder,  which  receives  a  portion  of  the  bile,  pouring  it 
into  the  intestine  by  a  separate  canal. 

The  pancreas  is  lodged  in  the  first  fold  of  the  small  intestine, 
and  is  generally  long,  narrow,  and  more  or  less  divided. 

The  spleen  is  small,  and  its  uses  are  as  little  known  as  in  the 
case  of  mammifers.  The  kidneys,  on  the  contrary,  are  very 
voluminous,  irregidar  in  form,  and  lodged  behind  the  peritoneum 
in  several  cavities  formed  along  the  superior  part  of  the  pelvis. 
They  do  not,  as  in  mammifers,  possess  a  distinct  cortical  sub- 
stance. In  that  part  of  the  great  intestine  which  corresponds 
to  the  rectum,  there  is  an  enlargement  called  the  cloaca,  into 
which  the  liquid  secreted  by  the  kidneys  is  discharged,  and  mixed 
with  excrements  expelled  from  the  intestines. 

The  nutritive  products  of  digestion,  as  in  mammifers,  pass 
from  the  intestines  into  a  system  of  l5anphatic  vessels  connected 
with  it,  which  converge  into  two  thoracic  ducts,  which  discharge 
their  contents  into  the  jugular  veins  at  each  side  of  the  neck. 

Vascular  System. — The  vascular  system  of  fowls  consists  of  a 
heart  with  four  chambers,  from  which  the  blood  is  distributed 
by  means  of  arteries.  The  blood  is  about  2°  warmer  than  that 
of  mammals,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  body  heat  is  retained  by 
the  feathers,  which  are  bad  conductors. 

Respiratory  Organs. — Respiration  is  secured  by  lungs,  which 
are  fixed  to  the  back  of  the  fowl,  and  maintained  below  by  a  re- 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  YOWL  75 

sisting  membrane,  which,  in  order  to  secure  the  inhalation  and 
exhalation  of  air,  is  moved  bj^  muscular  power.  The  lungs  are 
pierced  with  holes,  and  thus  the  air  is  able  to  circulate  all  over 
the  body,  even  to  the  bone  cavities.  The  trachea,  or  windpipe, 
is  long,  which,  together  with  the  bronchi,  has  cartilaginous  rings. 
The  lungs  themselves  are  surrounded  by  air-sacs,  forming  reser- 
voirs, and  there  are  others,  nine  in  all,  in  the  breast  and  lower 
part  of  the  abdomen.  These  give  a  Hghtness  to  the  body,  and 
enable  birds  to  rise  easily  from  the  ground. 

Ovaries. — In  the  hen  are  two  ovaries,  but  it  is  found  that  only 
one  is  active  at  the  same  time.  In  appearance  the  ovary  is  not 
dissimilar  to  a  bunch  of  grapes,  the  ova  varjang  in  size  from  small 
specks  to  full-sized  j-olks,  when  the  biixl  is  productive.  Further 
information  as  to  the  number  of  oocytes  in  the  ovaries  of  hens 
will  be  found  in  Chapter  XXI.  As  each  ovum  comes  to  its  full 
maturity,  the  process  of  filhng  the  j^olk-sac  having  been  in  opera- 
tion for  some  time,  there  is  a  rupture  of  the  ligament  by  which 
it  is  attached  to  the  ovary,  and  it  falls  into  the  open  mouth 
of  the  oviduct,  a  tube  about  2  feet  in  length,  and  during  its 
passage  down  this  tube  it  is  first  impregnated  with  the  male 
element,  and  then  coated  with  successive  layers  of  albumen,  vnth. 
the  two  shell  membranes,  and  fijially  with  the  shell,  the  whole 
process  taking  about  eighteen  hours.  At  first  the  germinal 
vesicle  is  situate  in  the  centre  of  the  ovum,  but  as  it  increases 
in  size  it  rises  towards  the  upper  side.  The  male  reproductive 
organs  (testicles)  are  two  in  number,  and  are  found  in  front  of 
the  kidneys. 

Senses. — The  brain  of  fowls  is  well  developed,  but  the  various 
senses  vary  very  much  from  those  of  mammals.  The  skin  is 
not  sensitive,  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  covered  with  feathers. 
These  feathers  are  composed  of  a  stem  with  a  hollow  base,  and 
inserted  in  a  bulb,  and  attached  to  the  stems  are  barbs,  covered 
with  down,  hardly  visible,  however,  to  the  naked  eye.  Taste 
and  smell  are  neither  very  keen,  the  tongue  bemg  the  most  sensi- 
tive in  this  respect;  still,  at  the  same  time,  fowls  reject  those 
things  which  are  objectionable  to  them,  but  probably  this  is  more 
due  to  sight  and  memory  than  from  any  other  cause.  The  sight 
of  poultry,  as  of  all  birds,  is  very  piercing;  thej^  are  also  very 
acute  in  hearing. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  IN  RELATION  TO  POULTRY 
HUSBANDRY 

Natural  Advantages. — A  very  common,  but  nevertheless  erro- 
neous, impression  is  prevalent  that  the  reason  why  poultry  and 
eggs  are  produced  to  such  an  enormous  extent  abroad  is  that  the 
climatic  influences  are  more  favourable  than  in  this  country. 
Frequently  we  hear  that  reason  given  why  poultry-keeping  has 
not  developed  to  the  extent  which  might  have  been  anticipated. 
It  is  desirable,  therefore,  to  consider  this  question,  because 
natural  advantages  or  disadvantages  must  determine  to  a  large 
degree  the  industry  of  any  country. 

What  is  the  reason  that  the  United  Kingdom  has  been  the 
centre  of  the  world  for  the  breeding  of  high-class  stock  of  every 
kind  ?  We  may  fairly  give  credit  to  the  skill  of  breeders,  and 
to  the  somewhat  cramped  conditions  under  which  they  must 
work,  compelling  them  to  make  more  rigid  selection  than  would 
be  the  case  in  a  larger  and  more  thinly-populated  country.  But 
the  skill  referred  to  must  have  some  explanation,  and  we  believe 
that  it  is  the  direct  result  of  the  favourable  conditions  under 
which  breeders  have  worked.  Whilst,  therefore,  giving  full 
credit  to  stock-raisers  of  every  class  for  the  way  in  which  they 
have  perfected  the  different  races  and  breeds  of  domestic  animals, 
it  would  be  foolish  in  the  extreme  to  claim  that  this  skill  has  not 
been  assisted  by  their  conditions.  We  may  in  this  connection 
ask.  Why  is  it  that  our  animals,  and  also  the  human  beings 
inhabiting  moist,  temperate  zones,  are  fuller-bodied  and  more 
fleshy  than  is  usually  the  case,  at  any  rate  in  warmer  climes  ? 
Part  of  this  is  due  to  the  food  upon  which  thej^  live,  but  not 
entirely,  and  it  is  a  fact  that  anyone  emigrating  from  this  country 
and  remaining,  say,  in  America  or  South  Africa  for  a  few  years 
will  be  distinctly  different  in  appearance  from  what  he  was  at 
first,  and  than  he  would  have  been  had  he  stayed  at  home.  This 
76 


CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  77 

question  ofifers  a  veiy  wide  field  for  inquiry,  but  I  can  only 
indicate  some  of  the  main  points  for  consideration. 

Climatic  Influences. — It  will  be  within  the  observation  of 
everyone  that  the  temperate  zone  has  manifest  advantages  over 
countries  where  extremes  are  met  with.  We  must  recognize  that 
large  portions  of  Europe  and  of  North  America,  as  also  of  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  lie  within  the  temperate  zone;  bvit  these 
countries  vary  very  considerably.  Many  people  have  a  strange 
notion  that  the  greater  heat  of  the  summer  is  advantageous,  but 
that  is  not  so.  Those  who  have  travelled  on  the  Continent  know 
that  the  intense  heat  burns  up  vegetation,  and  thus  the  suppl}-  of 
natural  food  is  enormously  reduced,  whilst  the  evaporation  of  body 
moisture  is  met  with  to  a  greater  extent,  explaining  why,  under 
ordinary  conditions,  stock  is  much  leaner  during  hot  weather  and 
in  hot  climates  than  in  cooler  weather  and  colder  countries.  Exces- 
sive heat  is  as  disadvantageous  as  extreme  cold,  which  explains 
wh}^  the  temperate  zones  are  most  favourable  for  all  kinds  of  live- 
stock, whilst  a  moist  climate,  by  keeping  the  herbage  in  a  good 
state  nearly  all  the  year  round,  exercises  a  beneficial  effect  which 
has  never  yet  been  estimated  at  its  full  value.  In  this  country 
it  is  very  seldom  indeed  that  there  is  no  growth  in  the  grass, 
and  our  fields  as  a  rule  keep  green  all  the  year  round.  Occa- 
sionally we  have  severe  winters  and  hot  summers,  when  natural 
foods,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  are  scarce;  but  these  are  the 
exception.  Therefore,  so  far  as  we  are  concerned,  every  oppor- 
tunity in  respect  to  climate  is  given  for  the  development  of 
poultry  husbandry.  When  we  bear  in  mind  what  has  been  done 
in  other  countries,  the  greatest  encouragement  is  aSorded  for  the 
extension  of  our  work. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  effect  of  heat  upon 
the  body — namely,  causing  evaporation  of  moisture,  and  there- 
fore hardening  the  tissues.  It  is  also  true  that  cold,  by  inducing 
elimination  of  the  heat  force,  has  the  tendency  to  reduce  pro- 
duction and  increase  food  consumption,  whilst  the  food  must 
be  of  a  more  oily  nature.  Where  it  is  possible,  as  is  generally 
the  case  with  us  here,  to  secure  an  equable  climate,  then  all  the 
conditions  are  present  for  the  development  of  any  kind  of  stock- 
raising.  I  firmly  believe  that  the  reason  why  Ireland  produces 
such  fine  quality  butter,  and  also  why  the  United  Kingdom  is 
famous  for  the  richness  of  the  animal  flesh  produced  upon  its 
pastures,  is  due  to  the  conditions  already  referred  to.  In  this 
connection  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  even  within  the  con- 
fines of  a  small  country  like  the  United  Kingdom  places  will  be 
found  which  are  more  suited  for  breeding  than  for  feeding,  and 


78  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

vice  versa.  That  fact  should  be  kept  in  view.  It  is  seen  in  con- 
nection with  cattle  and  sheep.  Our  object  should  be,  therefoi'c, 
to  study  the  conditions  both  of  climate  and  of  soil  with  a  view  to 
adopting  methods  which  will  conduce  to  the  greatest  amount  of 
success. 

Moisture  in  Atmosphere. — I  have  already  indicated  that  mois- 
ture in  the  atmosphere  has  a  very  important  influence  upon 
stock-raising.  By  this  I  do  not  mean  that  the  action  is  direct — 
though  that  is  open  to  discussion — but  that  where  a  dry  air  pre- 
vails (and  dryness  may  be  the  result  of  either  extreme  cold  or 
heat)  the  quality  of  the  grass  or  other  growth  is  affected,  and  the 
influence  is  seen  in  the  flesh  and  eggs  obtained  from  the  fowls  kept 
thereon.  It  is  well  kno^vn  that  grass  is  richer  in  moist  countries, 
unless  the  moisture  be  excessive;  that  it  grows  perhaps  less 
rapidly  but  more  constantly;  and  that  it  lasts  much  longer. 
Although  the  fowl  originated  in  India,  many  birds  have  been 
taken  from  this  country  to  improve  the  stock  met  with  there,  but 
they  lose  size  very  quickly.  Moisture  fills  out  the  body,  securing 
that  increase  of  size  and  bulk  which  is  characteristic  of  nearly 
all  life  in  the  temperate  parts  of  the  earth,  and  especially  those 
surrounded  by  the  sea.  Moreover,  moisture  secures  for  the  birds 
a  much  more  abundant  supply  of  natural  food,  which  has  a  con- 
stant and  long-sustained  influence  upon  their  growth.  In  eggs 
74  per  cent,  of  the  total  bulk  consists  of  moisture.  Thus,  if  a 
hen  lays  120  eggs  in  the  course  of  twelve  months,  each  weighing 
2  ounces,  she  produces  a  total  bulk  of  15  pounds,  of  which  nearly 
11 J  pounds  consist  of  water.  The  greater  part  of  this  will  be 
obtained  either  from  the  atmosphere  directly,  or  indirectly 
through  the  food  consumed.  In  flesh  also  there  is  72  per  cent, 
of  moisture,  and  it  can  be  understood  that  dryness,  either  due  to 
excessive  heat  or  cold,  must  tend  to  reduce  the  bulk  of  flesh.  At 
the  same  time  we  must  recognize  that  excess  in  moisture  is 
equally  injurious  as  is  deficiency,  for  reasons  which  are  explained 
below.  A  very  wet,  cold  place  will  mean  that  the  birds  will  be 
subjected  not  only  to  atmospheric  cold,  but  also  to  earth  cold, 
which  will  be  injurious  in  the  extreme.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
we  have  a  combination  of  very  hot  air  with  dry,  hot  ground, 
then  the  effect  upon  the  animal  life  must  be  much  greater 
than  if  only  the  air  were  hot.  Our  object  should  be  to 
avoid  extremes,  and  whilst  we  may  have  a  great  deal  to  say 
in  condemnation  of  the  moist  conditions  of  the  British  Isles, 
on  the  whole  there  is  no  doubt  in  my  judgment  that  it  is  bene- 
ficial, and  conduces  to  that  quality  of  stock  of  which  we  are  so 
proud. 


CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  79 

Variations  of  Climate. — Within  the  confines  of  one  country  a 
great  variation  of  climate  may  be  found,  more  especially  in 
countries  so  diverse  as  the  United  Kingdom.  Mr.  Primrose 
McConnell,  in  his  valuable  work  on  "  Agricultural  Geology/' 
points  out  that  where  the  same  conditions  prevail  in  many  cases, 
even  though  hunckeds  of  miles  apart,  the  stock  has  a  uniform  type. 
He  says  that  "  We  find  on  the  American  continent,  on  the 
prairies,  a  region  of  land  very  similar  to  Eastern  Europe,  and 
this  similarly  tends  to  wipe  out  the  differences  between  breeds. 
British  breeds  have  a  tendency  there  to  lose  their  characteristics, 
and  would  in  time,  if  allowed  freedom,  revert  back  to  some 
common  form  when  continuously  bred  under  one  set  of  geological 
surroundings.''*  My  object  in  calling  attention  to  this  fact  is 
to  show  that  the  varying  climate  and  conditions  found  within  the 
British  Isles  is  a  distinct  advantage,  in  that  it  provides  a  varia- 
tion which  explains  to  some  extent  the  different  breeds  met  with 
in  this  country.  Of  course  there  are  considerable  variations  m 
temperature  and  in  climatic  conditions.  Some  places  are  colder 
than  others,  to  a  large  extent  a  question  of  altitude  and  of  ex- 
posure ;  others  are  influenced  by  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  probably 
in  no  place  m  the  world  can  the  same  diversification  be  met  with. 
In  the  work  just  referred  to,  Mr.  McConnell  points  out  that  "  on 
the  average,  the  month  of  January  is  warmer  in  the  North  of 
Scotland  than  it  is  in  the  Midlands,  and  the  cold  winters  of  some 
Northern  and  Midland  districts  are  the  result  of  their  elevation 
and  position,  rather  than  any  difference  of  latitude."  ■}"  It  is 
therefore  most  necessary  that  attention  should  be  given  to  this 
question,  because  it  at  once  indicates  the  importance  of  keeping 
in  view  the  climatic  conditions  in  making  choice  of  the  branch 
of  poultry-keeping  to  be  followed.  In  countries  which  are  uni- 
form we  may  find  the  same  methods  adopted  over  a  very  wide 
area,  but  that  practice  would  be  inad\asable  under  our  own 
conditions. 

Soil. — Here  we  approach  a  much  more  difficult  branch  of  the 
subject,  and  one  which  has  not  been  given  the  amount  of  study 
in  relation  to  poultry-keepmg  it  deserves.  At  the  same  time,  it 
will  be  recognized  that  soil  must  have  a  great  influence  upon  the 
animals  and  plants  existmg  thereon,  and  it  is  realized  to  some 
extent,  at  any  rate,  that  many  of  the  variations  met  with  in  all 
animal  and  plant  life  are  due  to  the  influence  of  the  soil.  It  has 
been  suggested — but  upon  this  point  we  have  little  information — 
that  the  coloration  of  our  various  animals  and  birds  is  to  some 
extent  due  to  the  soil  upon  which  they  are  kept.  At  this  stage 
*  "  Agricultural  Geology,"  1902,  p.  298.  t  il^i'd-,  P-  108. 


80  POUJ/rKY  HUSBANDRY 

it  would  be  impossible  to  express  any  definite  opinion  thereon, 
as  our  knowledge  is  too  scanty.  It  has  been  claimed  that  eggs 
produced  upon  iron-stone  jaeld  richer  yolks  than  elsewhere,  and 
there  appears  to  be  justification  for  this  statement.  There  can 
be  no  question  that  whether  the  jjlumage  is  affected  by  the  soil 
to  the  extent  which  is  sometimes  imagined  or  not,  the  colour  of 
the  legs  and  flesh  is  primarily  due  to  natural  causes,  and  it  is  to 
the  lighter  soils  we  owe  those  whitc-fieshed  birds  which  are  pre- 
ferred in  this  country  for  table  purposes.  There  can  be  no  ques- 
tion, however,  that  breeding  largely  inci eases  any  tendency  in 
that  direction,  but  by  breeding  1  mean  the  fixing  of  any  modi- 
fications that  may  have  been  introduced  naturally.  Mr.  McCon- 
nell,  speaking  of  the  horse,  says:  "  Within  the  last  1,000  or  1,500 
years  there  has  sprung  up  such  a  vast  diversity  of  breeds  within 
our  islands  as  cannot  be  matched  elsewhere  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth  on  an  equal  area.  That  the  complex  geological  structure 
of  these  islands  is  at  the  bottom  of  this  divergence  is  the  belief 
of  the  present  writer."*  This  is  equally  true  with  respect  to 
poultry,  and  we  may  accept  the  statement  here  put  forth. 

It  is  within  the  observation  of  many  poultry-keepers  that  the 
tendency  of  light,  dry  soils  is  to  bleach  the  legs  and  to  have  an 
influence  upon  the  colour  of  the  flesh,  whilst,  on  the  other  hand, 
heavy  soils  deepen  the  colour  of  the  legs.  My  attention  to  this 
question  was  stimulated  some  years  ago  by  the  experience  of  a 
then  well-known  poutoy  exhibitor.  He  was  a  breeder  of  Ply- 
mouth Rocks,  and  had  lived  for  a  considerable  time  upon  the 
heav}-  fiat  lands  of  East  Essex.  His  birds  were  famous  for  the 
brilliancy  of  the  colour  of  their  legs.  He  afterwards  renioved  into 
Surrey,  where  the  conditions  are  absolutely  opposite,  and  the 
result  was  that  the  birds  which  in  Essex  had  been  brilliant  in  the 
yellow  of  the  legs  paled  greatly,  and  it  was  only  in  so  far  as  he 
was  able  to  put  them  doAvn  upon  moist,  heavy  land  that  he  could 
retain  the  colour  satisfactorily  for  the  exhibition  pen.  This 
observation  led  me  to  watch  the  question  very  closely,  and  I 
therefore  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  in  selecthig  the  breed, 
and  consequently  the  branch  of  poultry-keeping,  the  nature  of 
the  soil  is  a  most  important  point  for  consideration.  There  is 
no  effect  without  a  cause,  so  the  variations  which  are  met  with 
in  our  poultry  are  the  results  of  differing  conditions.  Where 
breeding  has  been  carried  out  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to 
entirety  change  the  nature,  then  it  is  desirable  that  the  class  of 
fowl  shall  conform  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  has  been 
produced.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  it  is  not  a  question  of  the 
*  "  Agricultural  Geology,"  1902,  p.  26G. 


CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  81 

different  parts  of  the  country  so  much  as  the  soil.  Dorkings 
thrive  excellently  and  attain  early  maturity  and  great  size  in 
Scotland,  but  only  where  the  soil  is  favourable,  and  many  of  the 
best  exhibition  birds  of  that  breed  come  from  either  North  Britain 
or  North  Ireland.  Keeping  this  fact  in  view,  it  will  at  once  be 
e\ndent  that  breeds  should  be  maintained  upon  the  soil  most 
suited  to  them,  and  that  under  other  conditions  there  is  greater 
tendency  to  variation.  Some  years  ago  a  proposal  was  made 
that  there  should  be  an  international  standard  of  points  for 
poultry,  which  has  been  recentty  revived.  This  I  strongly  op- 
posed, believing  that  it  is  an  impossibilitj^,  and  that  the  change 
from  one  country  to  another  must  cause  differences  in  type,  and 
which  can  only  be  minimized  bj',  as  far  as  possible,  keeping  fowls 
upon  the  soil  to  which  they  are  most  suited. 

Effect  of  Soil  on  Growth. — It  is  within  the  observation  of  many 
poultry-keepers  that  there  is  a  great  difference  in  places  as  to  the 
rapidity  with  which  chickens  can  be  raised.  This  is  in  some  cases 
due  to  position.  For  instance,  land  facing  south  and  having  a 
slope  of,  say,  30°,  would  receive  the  greatest  amount  of  heat; 
and  a  northern  slope  at  the  same  angle  would  be  found  to  be 
3°  F.  colder  than  the  former.  The  difference  to  be  noted  is  not 
merely  a  question  of  aspect,  but  also  of  the  nature  of  the  soile 
Whilst  it  is  true  that  heat  and  cold  are  to  a  large  extent  atmos- 
pheric, 3'et  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  temperature  of  the 
ground  itself,  this  being  a  result  of  its  nature  and  formation. 
Mr.  McConnell  says:*  "The  difference  in  temperature  of  soils 
due  to  mere  wetness  or  dryness  is  considerable.  Schiibler  found 
that  the  average  of  twelve  soils  gave  a  temperature  of  100"5°  F. 
in  the  wet  state,  as  against  112"5°  in  a  dry  state,  showing  a  differ- 
ence of  12°  F."  Here  we  have  an  explanation  as  to  why  chickens 
are  much  slower  in  growth  on  heavy  soUs.  As  an  instance  of 
this,  I  was  consulted  some  years  ago  by  a  farmer  in  one  of  the 
eastern  counties  as  to  his  taking  up  the  raising  of  chickens  for 
market.  On  hearing  that  his  farm  was  heavy  clay  land,  I  sug- 
gested that  he  had  better  go  in  for  egg  production,  and  pointed 
out  that  he  would  find  that  chickens  could  not  be  growTi  as 
rapidly  as  upon  a  lighter  soil.  However,  he  was  determined  to 
try,  and  after  three  years  he  gave  it  up  hj  reason  of  the  fact  that, 
whilst  he  could  fatten  just  as  well  as  in  Sussex,  the  birds  never 
were  as  good.  Moreover,  they  took  from  three  to  five  weeks 
longer  to  grow  to  a  fattening  age.  This  observation  has  been 
followed  by  many  others,  and,  therefore,  in  this  respect  also  it 
is  most  important  that  the  soil  of  the  district  shall  be  studied  in 
*  "  Agricultural  Geology,"  1902,  p.  132. 


82  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

order  to  determine  the  branch  of  poultrj-keeping  to  be  followed. 
Damp  land  is  not  suitable  for  fowls,  though  it  may  be  good  for 
ducks,  provided  precautions  are  taken  that  the  birds  shall  have 
a  dry  sleeping-place.  Heavy  clay  land  is  most  suited  for  egg 
l^roduction,  and  it  is  upon  the  medium  and  light  soils  only  that 
table  poultry-raising  should  be  attempted.  Even  upon  the  dif- 
ferent soils  it  is  desirable  to  study  the  breeds  which  conform  to 
the  local  conditions,  with  a  view  to  avoiding  n^istakes.  We 
quote  here  from  Mr.  McConnell's  Avork  on  "  Agricultiu-al  Geol- 
ogy," a  summary*  showing  that  the  temperature  of  the  soil  is 
influenced  in  the  following  ways : 

"  Sandy  or  gravelly  soils  absorb  heat  more  lapidl}^  and  retain 
the  heat  longer  than  loam  or  clay  do,  and  are  therefore  reckoned 
warmer  and  '  earlier  '  soils.  Dark-coloured  soils  absorb  more 
heat  tlian  light-coloured  ones,  so,  therefore,  peaty  and  humous 
soils  are  warmer  and  earlier  than  whitish,  chalky  soils.  The 
more  moisture  in  a  soil,  the  more  of  the  sun's  heat  is  used  in 
warming  up  and  evaporating  this  water,  so  that  the  temperature 
of  the  soil  itself  will  be  raised  more  slowly,  and  it  will  cool  pro- 
portionately more  quickly;  therefore,  damp  soils  are  cold  and 
'  late.'  The  aspect  of  a  soil,  as  facing  south  against  facing  north, 
will  much  affect  the  amoiint  of  the  heat  received  from  the  sun, 
taking  either  any  day  of  any  season  or  the  whole  year.  The 
inclination  of  any  field  will  influence  the  amount  of  heat  received 
from  the  sun ;  a  plain  will  receive  less  than  a  sloping  field  inclined 
to  the  south,  and  a  slope  to  the  north  least  of  all." 

Summary. — Generally  speaking,  it  may  be  taken  that  fowls 
with  white  flesh  do  best  on  light  soils;  with  grey  flesh  and  legs 
on  medium  soils;  those  with  yellow  flesh  and  legs  on  heavy  soils. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  as  a  rule  the  finest  eggs  are  produced 
upon  the  heavier  lands.  In  respect  to  the  above,  mention  is  not 
made  of  sandy  soil,  because  this  is  of  much  less  use,  although  dry, 
for  poultry-keeping.  The  fact  is,  the  herbage  upon  any  soil 
determines  its  value  for  stock  purposes,  and  if  the  soil  is  not  good 
enough  to  grow  plant  life,  it  is  of  a  low  standard  of  value  for 
poultry.  Many  people  have  an  erroneous  impression  with  regard 
to  sand,  and  we  frequently  have  to  state  that  we  should  prefer 
the  heaviest  land  that  was  ever  ploughed  to  pure  sand  for  poultry- 
keeping. 

Soils  in  Relation  to  Breeds. — In  view  of  what  is  stated  above 
as  to  suitabilit\'  of  soils  and  climate  to  the  respective  breeds,  we 
can  only  generalize  in  this  direction,  as  there  is  often  great 

*  "  Agricultural  Geology,"  1902,  pp.  134,  135. 


CLIMATE  AND  SOIL 


83 


difference  in  constitutional  vigour  of  varieties  of  the  same  breed, 
even  of  the  respective  strains.  The  following  will  give  a  general 
idea  in  this  direction,  in  so  far  as  those  races  and  varieties  are 
concerned  referred  to  in  Chapter  III. 


Fowls. 

Egg  Production. — In  this  I  include  both  the  non-sitters  and 
general  purpose  breeds — the  former  as  the  more  prolific,  the 
latter  as  better  layers  in  winter. 

Position. 


Cold,   exjiosed  situations,   or  clay 
soils 


Medium  soils 


Gravelly  or  light  soils 


Breeds  recommended. 
[  Aucona. 

Leghorn. 
^  Plymouth  Rock. 

Rhode  Island  Red. 
(^Wyandotte. 

/"Braekel. 

Campine. 

Houdan. 

Mmorca. 

Redcap. 

Scotch  Grey. 

Faverolle. 

,  Orpington . 
All  races  named  above. 


Flesh  Production. — Whilst  the  better  classes  of  table  chickens 
cannot  be  produced  on  heavier  lands,  good  birds  may  be  reared, 
though  probably  with  yellow  or  creamy  flesh.  It  is  important, 
however,  that  these  should  not  be  chosen  from  the  more  tender 
breeds. 

Position.  Breeds  recommended. 

rLangshan. 

Clay  soils j  Black  Oii^ington. 

^  j  Plymouth  Rock. 

\,  Wyandotte. 


Medium  soils 


Gravelly  or  light  soils 


(Scotch  Grfjy. 
Bressc. 
Faverolle. 
Buff  and  White  Orpingtc 
Malinc. 


j'  Dorking. 
Game. 


(other  French  breeds. 


Crosses. — So  far  as  these  are  concerned,  it  is  needless  to  describe 
them.  Enough  if  it  be  stated  that  the  colour  of  leg  and  skin  as 
shown  above  should  be  a  guide  to  selection  for  crossing,  and  that 
it  is  unwise  to  attempt  rearing  high-class  table  birds  on  heavy 
land.     Other  suggestions  are  made  in  Chapter  III. 


84  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


Water-Fowl  and  Turkeys 

f  Gravelly  soils  in  valleys  with  streams  most  suitable;  high 
lands  not  so  good  in   summer;   peatj 
marshy,  undrained  land  to  be  avoided. 


Ducks  ..     -!  lands  not  so  good  in   summer;   peaty   soils  excellent 


{For  hatching  and  rearing,  down  and  hill  land  preferable;  for 
feeding  off,  heavy  arable  land  and  medium  pastures. 

relay  or  damp  land  fatal;  should  be  kept  on  medium  or  light 
Turkeys       ..     |         soil;  well-drained,  hilly  land  excellent. 

Change  oi  Conditions  and  Environment. — In  connection  with 
larger  stocks  it  is  recognized  that  as  a  rule  manifest  benefits  arise 
from  change  of  conditions,  but  hitherto  the  importance  of  such 
change  has  not  received  much  attention  at  the  hands  of  poultry 
breeders.  We  realize  that  it  would  not  pay  the  latter  to  send 
their  birds  away  during  the  period  of  growth  on  to  a  different 
soil,  as  is  frequently  done  by  breeders  of  the  hea\ier  tjqoe  of 
horses;  our  point  is,  that  sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  change 
the  special  branch  of  poultry  husbandry  followed,  or,  at  any  rate, 
to  change  the  class  of  fowl  kept.  The  latter  would  be  preferable, 
and  sometimes  it  would  be  advantageous,  especially  where  the 
poultry -keeping  has  been  intensive,  to  remove  all  fowls  from  the 
soil  for  three  or  four  years,  in  order  that  the  ground  may  have  a 
rest  in  the  same  way  as  takes  place  in  the  rotation  of  crops. 
My  object  at  the  present  time,  however,  is  not  to  deal  with  the 
matter  in  that  direction  so  much  as  to  show  the  influence  of  change 
of  soil  upon  the  birds  themselves. 

I  have  already  indicated  that  many  of  the  variations  which 
take  place  are  the  result  of  changed  conditions,  but  it  has  not  yet 
been  generally  recognized  that  an  important  benefit  may  be 
obtained  by  the  fowls  when  removed  from  one  place  to  another. 
Change  of  environment  influences  more  especially  growth  and 
productiveness,  though  it  also  modifies  characteristics.  The  late 
Charles  Darwin,  in  one  of  his  works,  quoting  the  remarks  of  a 
well-known  breeder,  mentions  this  influence,  and  says:  "  It  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  a  change  of  soil  and  climate  effect  perhaps 
as  great  a  change  in  the  constitution  as  would  result  from  an 
infusion  of  fresh  blood."*  He,  however,  shows  that  the  change 
is  not  always  beneficial.  In  some  cases  the  reverse  is  the  result, 
for  there  are  instances  on  record  where  changed  conditions  in  the 
case  of  domesticated  animals  have  distinctlj^  led  to  infertility. 
Infertility  may,  however,  be  due  to  other  causes,  and  as  a  rule  it 
is  owing  to  a  reduction  in  the  virility  of  stock.  In  the  temperate 
zones,  except  such  birds  as  are  kept  in  strict  confinement,  the 
•*  "  Animals  and  Plants  ur.der  Domestication.'^lSSo,  vol.  ii.,  p.  94. 


CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  85 

fowl  generally  breeds  without  any  difficulty.  I  have  known, 
however,  a  race  which  at  one  place  were  specially  characterized 
b}^  great  egg  production  or  by  flesh  qualities,  and  yet  which, 
removed  to  another  place,  were  distinctly  inferior  in  these 
directions.  The  point  which  it  is  desirable  for  the  breeder  to 
keep  constantly  in  view  is,  that  variety  of  conditions  seems  to 
be  absolutely  necessary  to  maintain  our  birds  in  full  vigour,  and 
that  one  of  the  most  important  considerations  is  that  we  should 
as  far  as  possible  endeavour  to  recognize  influences  which  will 
make  for  success. 

It  was  suggested  by  Darwin  that  change  of  conditions  would 
have  considerable  influence  in  maintaining  the  stamina  of  our 
races  of  animals  and  birds,  for  he  says  in  another  place:  "  It  is  a 
law  of  Nature  that  all  organic  beings  should  occasionally  cross, 
but  it  appeared  to  me  probable  that  the  good  derived  from  slight 
changes  in  the  conditions  of  life  from  being  an  analogous  phe- 
nomenon might  serve  this  purpose.  No  two  indi^^duals,  and 
still  less  varieties,  are  absolutely  alike  in  constitution  and  struc- 
ture, and  when  the  germ  of  one  is  fertilized  by  the  male  element 
of  another,  we  may  believe  that  it  is  acted  on  in  a  somewhat 
similar  manner  to  an  individual  when  exposed  to  slightly  changed 
conditions."* 

Application  in  Practice. — We  must  remember  that  the  systems 
which  are  found  successful  in  connection  with  plant  life  are  in 
many  instances  equally  applicable  to  our  animals.  No  practical 
farmer  would  think  of  growing  the  same  crop  year  after  year  upon 
one  field,  which  fact  has  led  to  rotation  in  farming.  Also  in  con- 
nection with  gardening  it  is  found  necessary,  where  the  ground  is 
occupied  for  a  succession  of  j^ears  with  a  similar  crop,  to  use  seed 
which  has  been  produced  elsewhere,  and  in  that  case  practically 
what  we  are  advocating  is  carried  out.  If  the  seed  obtained  from 
any  crop  were  employed  again  upon  the  land  where  the  crop  had 
been  gathered,  very  speedily  degeneracy  would  result,  and  there 
would  be  both  a  lessened  quantity  and  quality  of  produce.  What 
is  true  in  this  case  is  equally  so  with  poultry,  and,  in  fact,  were 
it  fully  recognized,  much  of  the  advocacy  of  fresh  blood  is  due 
to  the  recognition  by  practical  experience  of  the  fact  that  stock 
kept  upon  the  same  land  gradually  loses  its  vigour  and  its  pro- 
ductiveness, or,  to  quite  the  remarks  of  an  experienced  farmer 
many  years  ago,  published  in  the  Gardener's  Chronicle  and  Agri- 
cultural Gazette  (1850) :  "  Nothing  can  be  more  clearly  established 
in  agriculture  than  that  growth  of  any  one  variety  in  the  same 
district  makes  it  liable  to  deterioration  either  in  quality  or 
*  "  Auimals  and  Plants  under  Domosticatiou,"  1885,  vol.  ii.,  p.  127. 


86  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

quantity."  Sometimes  we  meet  with  instances  where  fowls  are 
kept  upon  land  for  several  years,  and  the  measure  of  success 
realized  at  first  is  not  maintained.  Perhaps  fresh  stock  is  then 
introduced,  and  it  is  found  that  these  grow  better  and  are  much 
more  productive.  To  this  cause  may  be  attributed  the  favour 
with  which  new  breeds  of  poultry  are  frequently  regarded,  and 
often  the  credit  which  is  given  to  the  fowls  themselves  does  not 
really  belong  to  them,  the  fact  being  that  the  greater  success 
achieved  is  due  to  the  new  conditions  rather  than  to  any  instrinic 
merits  of  the  birds.  I  believe,  therefore,  that  an  interchange  is 
absolutely  required,  and  that  very  often  the  great  success,  both 
as  to  egg  production  and  also  to  meat  qualities,  found  when  fowls 
are  removed  from  one  country  to  another,  is  attributable  to  the 
stimulus  given  under  the  entirely  new  conditions. 

Many  poultry-keepers,  when  they  are  purchasing  fresh  stock, 
buy  them  as  near  home  as  possible  in  order  to  save  themselves 
trouble.  Where  the  place  from  which  the  birds  are  purchased  is 
sufficiently  varied,  this  does  not  matter.  We  know  that  in  the 
British  Isles  there  is  a  great  diversity  of  conditions.  Within  a 
radius  of  tAvo  or  three  miles  we  may  have  three  or  four  different 
classes  of  soil,  and  also  very  different  altitudes.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  change  desired  is  obtained,  but  as  a  rule  it 
would  be  wiser  to  go  much  farther  afield,  securing  birds  which 
have  been  raised,  perhaps,  for  two  or  three  generations  under 
absolutely  different  conditions,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  upon 
different  soil.  A  further  direction  in  which  much  can  be  done  is 
in  the  raising  of  chickens,  even  upon  one  farm  where  a  large  area 
is  covered.  For  instance,  supposing  that  the  land  is  undulating, 
or  in  the  hilly  districts  comprises  both  high  and  low  land,  then  it 
would  be  advantageous  to  rear  the  birds  upon  different  soil  from 
where  the  breeding  stock  are  maintained.  Much  can  be  accom- 
plished in  this  way  to  overcome  the  undoubted  disadvantages 
which  arise  from  keeping  fowls  imder  domestication. 

North  versus  South. — Some  years  ago  the  late  Louis  Van  der 
Snickt,  of  Brussels,  suggested  that  change  of  conditions  is 
responsible  for  variations  in  egg  and  flesh  production,  generally 
attributed  to  other  causes.  He  pointed  out  that  Avild  birds  come 
north  for  the  breeding  season.  Li  the  doing  so  oxpcnditm-e  of 
phj'sical  energy  reduces  the  reserves  of  fat  accinnulated  imder 
milder  conditions.  Not  alone  is  that  the  case,  but  the  colder  and 
more  bracing  air  stimulates  the  breeding  activities.  From  that 
fact  he  deduced  that  in  connection  with  poultry,  even  though 
these  species  are  non-migratory  except  in  the  case  of  wild  ducks 
and  geesCj  a  similar  racial  influence  is  exerted  upon  birds  trans- 


CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  87 

ferred  from  the  country  they  have  long  lived  in  to  another,  so 
long  as  the  new  habitat  is  not  an  extreme.  As  the  late  Charles 
Darwin  pointed  out:*  "  The  fowl,  a  native  of  the  hot  jungles  of 
India,  becomes  more  fertile  than  its  parent  stock  in  every  quarter 
of  the  world  until  we  advance  as  far  north  as  Greenland  and 
North  Siberia,  where  this  bird  will  not  breed."  That  other 
influences  are  in  operation  is  certain.  At  the  same  time  my  own 
observations  since  the  suggestion  was  first  made  have  supported 
the  theor}^  All  the  Mediterranean  races  of  fowls  are  better 
layers  in  Northern  Europe  than  in  the  South.  And  other 
evidence  is  that  birds  of  a  hardy  tjrpe  transferred  from  even 
milder  areas  to  more  bracing  conditions  are  usually  productive 
to  a  greater  extent  than  before,  apart  altogether  from  qiiestions  of 
feeding  and  management,  probably  owing  in  some  measure  to  the 
greater  activity  of  body  thus  induced  to  meet  the  more  rigorous 
conditions.  On  the  other  hand,  birds  transferred  from  colder  to 
warmer  countries,  as  from  an  upland  district  to  a  lower-ljang, 
milder  environment  tend  to  lethargy  of  habit  and  to  increase 
of  flesh.  That  is  well  known  in  the  case  of  cattle  and  sheep,  and 
I  see  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  equally  true  with  poultry. 
What  is  here  stated  is  of  considerable  importance  to  breeders  if 
they  keep  in  mind  that  it  does  not  applj^  to  great  extremes  of 
heat  or  cold. 

*  "  Animals  and  Plants  luider  Domestication,"  1885,  vol.  ii.,  p.  145. 


CHAPTER  VII 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY  ON  FARMS 

The  most  profitable  and  promising  method  of  developing 
poultry  husbandry  is  as  part  of  the  farm  operations  of  any 
country.  That  must  be  the  basis,  and  will  ever  be  the  main  source 
of  supply.  Breeding  poultrj^  farms  and  even  specialist  plants 
may  have  their  place  in  the  general  scheme,  as  has  already  been 
stated,  and  is  more  fully  dealt  with  in  later  chapters.  Such, 
however,  are  merely  contributory,  and  of  the  lesser  importance  in 
relation  to  food  production.  In  newer  lands  progression  may  be 
encouraged  by  establishment  of  specialist  farms,  in  which  the 
sale  of  breeding  stock  is  made  a  leading  feature.  There,  however, 
population  is  usually  scanty,  and  operations  are  generally  on  a 
larger  scale  in  other  sections  of  agriculture.  Among  the  older 
countries  where  the  soil  is  more  or  less  fully  in  occupation,  the 
chief  method  for  development  of  the  food  resources  in  connection 
with  poultry  husbandrj^  is  by  extension  as  far  as  possible  upon 
each  individual  farm  and  holding,  in  accordance  with  its  capacity 
and  in  due  relation  to  its  other  branches.  That  was  the  ideal 
which  impressed  itself  uj)on  my  mind  when  I  began  to  study  this 
question  more  than  thirty-five  years  ago,  since  which  time  it  has 
grown  steadily  as  a  result  of  wider  experience  and  observation. 
\Vhat  is  here  stated  is  evident  everywhere.  When  in  America 
the  Hon.  James  Wilson,  at  that  period  Minister  of  Agi-iculture, 
informed  me  that  95  per  cent,  of  the  eggs  and  poultry  marketed 
in  the  United  States  were  produced  upon  ordinary  farms.  In 
Denmark  it  was  stated  that  the  proportion  was  99  per  cent.  In 
France  and  all  Continental  coiintries  the  same  is  true,  as  in 
Ireland.  In  Britain,  even  if  we  take  into  account  the  vast 
multitude  of  smaller  poultrj'-keepers  who  in  this  waj-  siqaply  their 
own  household  needs,  together  with  amateurs  and  specialist 
breeders,  I  question  whether  their  share  of  production  is  equal 
to  10  per  cent,  of  the  total.  Hence  the  importance  of  advancing 
88 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY  ON  FARMS  89 

and  developing  poultry  husbandly  in  this  country  as  an  integral 
part  of  agriculture,  not  alone  to  meet  the  already  enormous 
demand,  but  in  anticipation  of  future  requirements. 

Eggs  or  Flesh. — Even  upon  farms,  however,  there  must  be  a 
definite  aim  in  respect  to  the  poultry  section.  Too  long  have 
haphazard  methods  been  the  dominant  factor.  Whilst  a  hen  is 
ever  a  hen,  there  are  wide  differences  in  productiveness,  as  shown 
above.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  that  consideration  should  be 
given  to — (1)  the  capacity  of  the  farm,  (2)  the  nature  of  the 
climate  and  soil,  and  (3)  the  product  which  will  yield  the  highest 
returns  in  accordance  with  market  demands.  On  these  questions 
more  is  said  later,  and  need  only  now  be  mentioned. 

Generally  speaking,  and  taking  the  country  as  a  whole,  the 
majority  of  farmers  find  that  egg  production  is  the  most  paj^ing 
part  of  their  poultry  operations,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the 
demand  for  eggs  is  to  be  met  with  in  almost  every  section  of  the 
country,  and  is  practically  always  greater  than  the  supplj^  whilst 
it  is  rapidly  advancing,  and  prices  are  as  a  rule  good  except  where 
the  quantity  available  is  very  limited  or  the  local  organization 
for  marketing  is  at  fault.  A  further  fact  is  that  egg  production 
entails  less  labour  than  table  poultry.  There  are,  however, 
exceptions,  such  as  in  the  south-eastern  counties  of  England, 
where  there  is  a  constant  demand  for  chickens  on  the  part  of 
fatteners;  in  Buckinghamshire  and  one  or  two  other  counties, 
where  duck-breeding  forms  an  important  industry;  and  in  East 
Anglia,  where  turkey-breeding  has  received  a  large  amount  of 
attention.  That  these  might  be  duplicated  elsewhere  I  do  not 
doubt.  It  is  useless,  however,  producing  high -class  poultry 
unless  there  is  a  market  for  it.  In  the  case  of  fowls  a  prime 
essential  is  the  proximity  of  fattening  centres  where  the  birds 
can  be  finished  off,  for  lean  fowls,  if  to  be  killed  forthwith,  are  of 
much  less  value  than  when  they  are  to  be  fed  off.  Unless  a  profit- 
able outlet  is  at  hand,  the  rearing  of  such  birds  would  be  in  vaiu. 
Moreover,  to  secure  a  trade  there  must  be  a  fairly  regular  supply, 
and  that  can  only  be  accomplished  where  a  considerable  number 
of  people  wthin  a  given  area  are  operating  on  similar  lines.  No 
ordinary  farmer  could  produce  on  a  sufficiently  large  scale  to 
satisfy  traders,  who  do  not  want  driblets  at  uncertain  intervals. 
The  same  is  true  of  ducks  and  turkeys.  It  must  be  by  either 
big  poultry  farms,  which  are  unprofitable,  or  the  contributory 
efforts  of  a  number  of  farmers.  The  latter  I  have  advocated  as 
alone  capable  of  solving  this  problem. 

In  order  not  to  be  misunderstood,  I  acknowledge  that  the  farmer 
who  makes  egg  production   his  main  object  will  have  chickens 


00  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

and  old  hens  for  sale  at  certain  seasons,  and  must  make  the 
best  of  them  ;  and  that  the  breeder  of  table  poultry  will 
also  have  to  dispose  of  eggs  not  required  for  hatching.  Further, 
there  are  districts,  such  as  near  holiday  resorts,  where  eggs 
can  always  be  sold,  and  fair  quality  poultry  may  be  disposed 
of  during  the  season.  Where  that  is  so,  plans  should  be  made 
accordingly. 

"  Pin  Money." — A\Tiere  the  number  of  fowls  maintained  upon 
any  occupation  is  comparatively  small,  then  the  simplest,  easiest, 
and  cheapest  method  is  by  allowing  them  to  live  around  the 
homestead,  finding  the  greater  part  of  their  food  there,  and 
sleeping  in  one  of  the  farm  buildings.  Such  is  the  picturesque 
side  of  farm  poultry  husbandry,  as  revealed  in  the  paintings  of 
John  Herring,  of  mj^  old  friend  the  late  Harrison  Weir,  and 
others.  Usually  the  flock  is  a  mixed  one:  fowls  in  the  greater 
proportion,  a  few  ducks,  perhaps  some  geese  and  txirkeys. 
Properly  controlled  and  managed  I  do  not  think  there  is  any  side 
which  yields  an  equal  return  for  the  outlay,  even  though  the  corn 
which  the  farmer's  good  wife  gets  for  nothing  be  charged  as  a 
debit.  That,  however,  may  be  termed  "  pin-money  poultry- 
keeping."  From  this  she  is  able  to  obtain  many  little  things 
without  asking  her  husband  for  cash  to  buy  them.  Within  strict 
limitations,  such  a  method  is  successful  in  countries  of  small 
occupations  by  the  aggregation  of  produce  from  many  individuals, 
as  in  Russia  to  a  considerable  extent.  It  does,  however,  not 
exhaust  the  capacity  of  even  these  lands,  and  merely  touches  the 
fringe  of  what  may  be  done  where  the  holdings  are  larger.  It  is 
evident  that  the  method  here  referred  to  involves  a  strict  limita- 
tion of  the  number  of  poultry  kept,  otherwise  by  concentration 
upon  a  comparatively  small  area  the  soil  becomes  in  the  course 
of  years  "  fowl  sick " — that  is,  impregnated  with  manurial 
elements.  Therefore,  where  such  a  system  is  adopted,  and  I 
recognize  that  in  some  instances  no  other  is  possible,  the  number 
of  adults  must  be  kept  down  in  accordance  with  the  conditions. 
\^niat  that  number  should  be  it  is  difficult  to  state.  The  deter- 
mining factor  is  the  extent  of  the  farmj^ard  and  adjacent  pad- 
docks. Usually  twenty  to  forty  will  be  quite  sufficient.  Nearly 
all  the  great  poultry  epidemics  observed  have  l)een  due  to  increase 
of  numbeis  without  modification  of  n\ethod,  and  that  is  also  true 
upon  individual  farms.  A  note  of  one  of  these  iattei-  will  suffice 
to  illustrate  my  point.  On  a  Midland  county  farm  the  complaint 
was  made  that  a  good  many  of  the  older  birds  were  dying,  and 
there  was  a  great  difficulty  in  rearing  chickens.  Inquiries 
revealed  the  fact  that  the  number  of  the  former  had  within  recent 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY  ON  FARMS  91 

years  been  more  than  doubled,  and  that  chicks  had  been  raised 
for  more  than  thirty  years  on  one  field  adjacent  to  the  house. 
So  long  as  the  operations  were  small  no  evil  effect  was  noticed. 
It  was  by  keeping  numbers  in  excess  of  the  capacity  that  the  result 
stated  had  followed. 

Homestead  Methods. — So  far  as  housing  the  fowls  is  concerned, 
the  principles  which  are  laid  down  in  Chapter  XI.  should  be 
carefully  observed.  There  are,  however,  a  few  points  which 
may  be  specially  emphasized — nameh^  that  there  must  be  no 
overacowding  in  the  roosting  quarters.  The  capacity  of  air- 
space in  a  poultry  house  should  be  at  least  10  cubic  feet  per 
"inmate — that  is,  for  each  fowl.  Ducks,  geese,  and  turkeys, 
should  be  separately  provided  for.  The  two  last  named,  how- 
ever, require  at  least  40  cubic  feet  of  air-space  for  each  bird,  and 
these  are  better  if  differently  treated,  as  described  in  Chapters 
XIX.  and  XX.  Reverting  to  permanent  houses  for  fowls,  the 
common  mistake  is  made  of  building  so  that  light  and  ventila- 
tion are  inadequate.  It  is  impossible  to  urge  too  strongly  the 
requirements  mentioned.  It  would  be  a  simple  matter  to  alter 
most  of  these  buildings  to  the  open-fronted  form,  which  would 
at  once  solve  the  problem  referred  to,  in  so  far  as  the  points 
named  are  concerned.  The  old  notion  as  to  conservation  of 
warmth  being  conducive  to  prolificacy,  and  arri\ang  thereat  by 
restricting  the  circulation  of  air,  is  exploded.  As  homestead 
fowls  are  able  to  obtain  plenty  of  exercise,  scratching  sheds  are 
not  required. 

The  natural  methods  of  hatching  and  rearing  described  ni 
Chapters  XV.  and  XVI.  are  usually  found  most  suitable  for  this 
class  of  poultry  husbandry,  provided  that  the  chickens  can  be 
hatched  early  enough  to  come  into  lay  the  following  autumn. 
That  will  depend  to  some  degree  upon  the  breed  kept.  If  it  be 
a  non-sitter  artificial  sj'stems  must  be  introduced.  In  any  case, 
however,  an  incubator  wall  be  valuable,  in  order  that  the  time  of 
hatching  shall  be  under  control.  In  this  connection  supremely 
important  is  it  that  the  rearing  ground  shall  not  always  be  the 
same.  On  few  farms  is  it  impossible  to  insure  variation  in  this 
respect  between  one  season  and  another. 

There  is  a  branch  of  poultry  work  for  which  the  homestead 
system  is  specially  suited,  as  met  with  in  the  south-eastern 
counties  of  England  and  in  some  sections  of  Ireland — namely, 
rearing  chickens  for  sale  to  fatteners.  On  an  ordinary  small 
farm,  by  keeping  a  flock  of,  saj',  twenty-five  breeders,  two  to 
three  hundred  chickens  can  be  raised  annually.  Under  such 
circumstances  an  incubator  and  brooder  are  necessary  for  securing 


92  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

early  chicks,  and  especial  care  must   be  taken  to  provide  fresh 
rearing  and  growdng  grounds  every  year. 

Distributive  Methods. — It  is  evident  that  the  system  referred 
to  above  must  seriously  limit  the  egg  and  poultry  production  of 
any  country  where  the  farms  are  of  a  fair  size.  That  explains 
the  figures  in  Chapter  I.,  as  to  the  average  number  of  poultry  in 
Great  Britain.  Therefore,  a  prime  necessity  for  increase  is  that 
the  birds  shall  l^e  distributed  over  the  land,  form  an  integral  part 
of  the  operations,  and  in  rotation  with  the  crops,  whatever  these 
may  be.  Alone  in  that  way  can  the  capacity  of  production  be 
developed.  Taking  a  100-acre  farm  with  fair-sized  buildings, 
if  all  the  fowls  are  to  be  concentrated  around  the  homestead  it 
would  be  inadvisable  to  keep  more  than  thirty  to  forty  adults, 
or  fifty  at  most.  The  highest  of  these  figures  would  only  repre- 
sent half  a  fowl  per  acre  of  cultivated  land,  which  is  a  little  under 
the  actual  average  on  all  the  farms  of  Great  Britain.  Were  the 
farm  larger,  say  of  300  acres,  not  a  great  number  more  could 
be  profitably  maintained  under  that  system.  Thus  we  see  why 
the  larger  the  farm  the  smaller  pro  rata  the  poultry  population. 
It  is  the  method,  not  the  possibility,  that  is  at  fault. 

Unless,  therefore,  what  are  knoA\Ti  as  extensive  methods 
are  adopted,  it  is  impossible  to  look  for  that  increased  production 
towards  which  we  are  striving.  This  fact  was  recognized  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  leading  in  some  sections  of 
the  country  to  an  advance  which,  small  as  compared  with  what 
may  yet  be,  has  been  considerable.  My  own  calculation,  based 
upon  evidence  it  would  take  too  much  space  to  give  in  detail,  is 
that  the  total  annual  value  of  eggs  and  poultrj^  produced  in  the 
United  Kingdom  has  increased  by  £5,000,000  within  the  last 
twenty  years.  As  yet,  however,  the  possibilities  have  only  been 
realized  by  a  few.  In  many  counties  the  old  methods  still  are 
paramount.  What  we  have  to  do  is  to  secure  the  adoption  of 
those  which  are  referred  to  below. 

Portable  Houses. — There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  extensive 
system  can  be  carried  out — namely,  by  use  of  portable  houses, 
or  by  what  is  known  as  the  colony  method.  As  the  latter  is 
specially  suited  to  small  farms  and  allotments,  although  it  can 
be  adopted  on  larger  farms,  information  as  to  it  will  be  found  in 
the  next  chapter,  and  I  now  deal  with  the  former. 

Many  forms  of  portable  houses  are  used.  So  long  as  these 
conform  to  the  principles  laid  down  in  Chapter  XI.  the  shape  and 
build  do  not  so  much  matter.  As  the  main  object  is  to  distribute 
the  fowls  in  relation  to  the  cropping,  it  is,  as  a  question  of  labour. 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY  ON  FARMS  93 

desirable  that  these  shall  be  easily  removable  from  one  field  to 
another,  or  even  on  the  same  field.  To  do  that  frequently  and 
easily  the  size  must  be  limited,  otherwise  it  would  be  too  heavy 
and  cumbersome.  Usually  we  find  that  the  sizes  most  useful  in 
this  direction  are  7  feet  long  by  5  feet  deep,  or  5  feet  long  by 
5  feet  deep,  the  former  of  which  will  accommodate  about  twenty 
fowls,  and  the  latter  fifteen.  For  breeding  flocks  consisting  of 
ten  inmates  a  useful  size  is  5  feet  long  by  4  feet  deep.  It  is  false 
economy  to  overcrowd  the  birds,  and  a  little  additional  floor 
space  is  no  disadvantage.  For  reasons  given  in  Chapter  XXI., 
where  hens  are  kept  for  egg  production  the  unit  should  be  about 
twenty-five  in  each  house. 

In  building  a  structure  of  this  class  the  most  important  con- 
sideration is  to  have  a  stout  frame,  otherwise  it  will  not  stand  the 
strain  of  frequent  removal.  That  is  specially  true  so  far  as  the 
bottom  joists  are  concerned,  and  it  must  be  strongly  built. 

Enclosed  Yards. — As  a  general  principle  in  connection  with 
farm  poultry  wire  netting  is  not  required,  as  the  essential  factor 
is  distribution  over  the  land  and  freedom  for  the  birds.  It  is 
frequently,  however,  a  great  convenience  to  have  a  few  houses 
and  runs  in  a  suitable  location  near  the  homestead  for  special 
purposes  and  at  special  seasons.  Such  are  not  required  for 
breeding  pens  unless  some  test  is  being  made.  In  practice  two 
or.  three  such  flocks  can  be  kept  at  liberty  in  a  single  field,  if  of  a 
fair  size,  without  danger  of  mixing,  provided  that  there  is  an 
active  male  bird  with  each  lot  of  hens  and  they  have  separate 
houses.  Where  very  early  eggs  are  wanted  for  hatching,  the 
plan  of  bringing  one  or  more  flocks  nearer  home  is  often  desirable, 
as  they  can  receive  attention  with  greater  facility,  and  also  be 
sheltered  during  very  unfavourable  weather,  such  as  snowstorms. 
Enclosed  yards  of  this  nature  may  be  used  for  isolating  male  birds, 
for  chickens  that  are  not  old  enough  to  be  put  out  on  range,  for 
old  hens  that  are  selected  for  sale,  for  fresh  stock  which  are  to  be 
kept  under  observation  before  they  are  placed  with  the  rest,  and 
for  many  other  purposes.  In  each  run  a  portable  house  should 
be  placed,  which  may  at  other  times  be  used  in  the  ordinary 
manner  on  the  fields. 

Class  of  Stock. — What  has  already  been  stated  in  Chapters  III. 
and  IV.  should  be  carefully  studied,  for  success  or  failure  will  in 
part  be  determined  by  a  right  class  of  birds,  properl}^  selected  and 
mated.  The  same  is  also  true  in  respect  to  observations  made  as 
to  the  number  which  should  be  maintained.  Upon  these  points, 
therefore,  not  much  need  be  added.     We  do  not  expect  farm 


94  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

poultry  to  have  the  same  high  standard  of  racial  excellence  as 
those  which  are  bred  under  other  conditions.  They  may  even 
appear  to  be  rougher  and  of  an  inferior  type,  though  that  is 
merely  on  the  surface.  Profit  will  be  determined  by  productive- 
ness. Primary  selection  should  in  such  cases  be  in  accordance 
with  known  qualities  as  far  as  possible,  or  with  such  type  as 
appears  contributory  in  that  direction.  What  has  been  said  as 
to  vigour  of  constitution  is  an  important  consideration,  especially 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  general  conditions  on  a  farm  are  more 
rigid  than  on  smaller  plants.  Farmers  are  not  breeding  to  exhi- 
bition standards,  and  they  are  well  advised  to  treat  these  in  an 
easy  manner,  whilst  keeping  racial  characters  pure.  The  choice 
of  breed  has  already  been  fully  dealt  with.  What  is  required  is 
to  avoid  intermixing,  and  to  pay  special  attention  to  the  family 
record  of  male  birds  purchased.  As  a  rule  it  is  only  necessary  to 
buy  one  or  two  of  these  every  one  or  two  years,  if  the  breeding 
operations  are  on  sj^stematic  lines. 

Bisks  of  Loss. — I  have  in  Chaj)ter  II.  dealt  frankly  with  the 
fox  question.  The  claim  is  sometimes  made  that  farmers  ought 
to  protect  their  fowls  by  wire  netting  and  shutting  up  early  in 
the  afternoon.  The  former  would  add  greatly  to  the  cost  of 
equipment,  the  latter  to  the  labour,  neither  of  which  the  farmer 
has  any  right  to  bear.  In  fact,  the  onus  for  protection  against 
loss  is  on  those  who  are  responsible  for  preservation  of  these 
troublesome  vermin.  In  these  days  farmers  are  justified  in 
demanding  that  they  shall  not  be  penalized  in  this  manner. 
Within  the  immediate  future  their  position  will  be  much  stronger. 
Where  foxes  are  troublesome  a  trapdoor  is  useful  at  night, 
though  troublesome  to  the  owner  who  desires  his  birds  to  be  out 
in  order  to  catch  the  "  early  worm." 

At  one  time  in  some  districts  there  were  many  complaints  of 
theft  among  birds  on  range.  Happily  that  is  not  now  so  preva- 
lent. Thieves  there  will  always  be,  and  these  must  be  dealt  with 
in  other  ways. 

Rooks  and  some  other  wild  birds  often  give  trouble  by  carrying 
off  young  chickens.  These  enemies  must  be  shot  down.  On 
smaller  occupations  cats  and  rats  are  great  nuisances,  and  the  loss 
is  often  considerable.  Shooting  the  former  and  killing  the  latter 
by  other  means  must  be  left  to  such  ingenuity  as  can  be  devised. 

Hatching  and  Rearing. — The  reader  is  referred  to  the  chapters 
dealing  with  Hatching  and  Rearing  and  General  Management 
for  detailed  descriptions  of  methods  and  appliances.  There  are, 
however,  one  or  two  points  which  it  is  fitting  should  here  be 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY  ON  FARMS  95 

mentioned.  First  of  these  is  the  importance  of  much  earlier 
hatching  upon  farms  than  is  customary.  My  observations  have 
frequently  shown  that  the  general  size  of  chickens  met  with  in 
the  month  of  June  is  what  ought  to  be  seen  in  April,  or  at  least 
early  May.  This  may  be  and  often  is  due  to  lack  of  broody 
hens,  not  the  want  of  fertile  eggs.  The  question  is  discussed  in 
later  chapters  from  special  aspects — namely,  the  influence  of 
earlier  hatching  upon  supplies  of  eggs  in  winter,  and  the  time  for 
marketing  chickens  and  ducklings.  What  we  require  to  aim  for 
is  bringing  forward  the  period  of  hatching  by  something  like  a 
month,  though  in  this  respect  the  conditions  of  each  farm  must 
be  considered.  Where  the  situation  is  colder  and  more  exposed, 
especially  if  at  a  higher  elevation,  hens  are  often  later  in  laying 
and  becoming  brood3^  so  that  a  month  would  scarcely  be  enough. 
In  order  to  control  the  time  of  hatching,  an  incubator  is  a  most 
valuable  appliance,  even  though  it  may  be  used  only  once  in  a 
season.  Where  the  line  of  profit  is  in  the  direction  of  raising 
birds  for  killing,  the  importance  of  hatching  early  is  very  great. 
In  that  case  it  is  necessary  to  enhance  growth  and  secure 
early  maturit}^  and  special  methods  are  essential.  Generally, 
however,  the  better  plan  is  to  rear  the  birds  on  range,  to  harden 
them  by  compelling  exercise,  and  allow  them  to  forage  over  as 
wide  an  area  as  is  available. 

Water-Fowl  and  Turkeys. — Specialization  is  the  order  of  the  day 
in  almost  every  branch  of  life.  Frequently  that  is  the  line  of 
success.  To  a  considerable  extent  this  is  desirable  in  respect  to 
poultry,  upon  larger  farms  as  well  as  on  smaller  occupations. 
Unless,  therefore,  the  different  branches  can  be  kept  distinct, 
which  to  a  large  extent  is  a  question  of  efficient  labour,  it  is  much 
wiser  not  to  complicate  the  problem  by  attempting  more  than 
oije  of  these  except  as  subsidiary  to  the  main  object.  What  I 
am  now  urging  is  that  the  different  branches  should  not  be  mixed, 
as  is  so  often  the  case,  disseminating  over  a  few  birds  of  the  four 
species  of  poultry  efforts  that  would  give  greater  success  if  con- 
centrated on  any  one.  Such  farmers  as  go  in  for  duck-raising 
— and  under  suitable  conditions  and  methods  there  is  no  more 
profitable  side  of  poultry  husbandry^ — should  concentrate  theii" 
attention  upon  that,  unless  they  can  take  up  some  other  on  dis- 
tinctive lines  under  separate  management.  As  a  general  rule, 
except  upon  rough  grazings,  geese  cannot  be  recommended  as 
profitable  stock,  although  a  lot  of  goslings  may  be  bought  after 
harvest  and  put  out  on  the  stubbles  in  arable  districts.  Upon  this 
branch  of  the  pursuit  more  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XIX.  And 
in  the  case  of  turkeys,  with  regard  to  which  are  great  possibilities 


96  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

as  yet  unrealized  by  larger  farmers,  the  wise  course  to  adopt  is 
to  specialize  on  these  birds,  and  not  to  breed  merely  a  few  as 
part  of  a  general  stock  of  poultry.  Mixed  cultivation  may  be 
desirable  and  profitable.  Upon  that  I  am  not  qualified  to  express 
an  opinion.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  mixed  poultry-keeping 
is  economically  a  mistake. 

A  Cambridgeshire  Example. — In  Chapter  II.  reference  will  be 
found  to  the  enterprise  of  Messrs.  J.  Chivers  and  Sons,  of  Histon, 
upon  whose  fruit  farms,  embracing  more  than  a  thousand  acres, 
poultry  are  now  being  kept  in  large  numbers.  Such  is  ex- 
ceptional as  to  the  extent  of  operations.  At  the  same  time, 
however,  the  principles  adopted,  which  are  simple  in  the  extreme, 
could  be  duplicated  elsewhere  on  a  scale  relative  to  the  size  of 
orchards.  The  houses  in  use  are  of  an  ordinary  tj^pe,  capable 
of  removal  as  that  may  be  required.  These  are  distributed 
among  the  fruit  groves.  As  a  result  natural  food  is  obtained  in 
abundance ;  the  fowls  live  to  a  considerable  degree  on  the  para- 
sites which  prey  upon  the  trees.  In  every  sense  the  method 
adopted  is  extensive — that  is,  distributive.  Concentration  is 
alone  found  at  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  centre  of  the  enter- 
prise— that  is,  where  are  the  buildings  for  hatching  and  fattening. 
Here  is  a  fine  incubator  house,  food  stores,  and  a  fattening  shed, 
with  a  number  of  other  buildings.  Surrounded  by  orchards,  the 
chickens,  whether  under  hens  or  in  brooders,  are  placed  out 
between  the  rows  of  trees  and  bushes,  under  what  are  ideal  con- 
ditions. Spread  about  in  this  way,  there  is  no  danger  of  debilita- 
tion or  of  disease  in  young  or  old  birds  as  a  result  of  tainted  soil, 
and,  as  stated  previously,  the  amount  of  natural  food  obtainable 
is  so  large  that  at  some  seasons  of  the  year  very  little  indeed  has 
to  be  supplied.  Upon  the  entire  place  I  did  not  see  a  foot  of 
wire  netting,  which  as  a  rule  is  unnecessary  and  undesirable  on 
farms  of  a  fair  size.  Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  in 
respect  to  both  eggs  and  table  poultry;  and  whilst  the  average 
egg  production  under  such  conditions  will  not  equal  those 
obtained  as  a  result  of  more  intensive  methods,  profit  should  be 
actually  greater,  due  to  the  reduced  cost  of  equipment  and  lesser 
annual  charges  for  food,  labour,  and  general  upkeep.  The  eggs 
obtained  are  mainly  used  in  the  works  of  this  firm  at  Histon,  but 
are  charged  at  current  market  prices.  What  is  being  done  here  is 
capable  of  reduplication  on  nearty  all  the  orchard  lands  through- 
out the  country.  My  own  observations  on  the  vineyards  of 
South-Western  France  and  the  orchards  of  Normandy  are  thus 
fully  confirmed.  Here,  it  is  well  to  remember,  the  povxltry  are 
subsidiary  to  fruit  cultivation,  which  mvist  always  be  the  case  on 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY  ON  FARMS  97 

larger  and  even  many  smaller  fruit  farms.     In  that  direction, 
however,  the  capacity  for  development  is  enormous. 

A  Belgian  Method. — In  spite  of  the  fact  that  recently  a  most 
disastrous  epidemic  has  decimated  the  poultry  husbandry  of 
Belgium,  and  that  among  others  the  farm  about  to  be  described 
has  suffered  heavily,  I  refer  to  it  because  there  are  features  of 
considerable  interest.  Such  losses  as  have  taken  place  are 
attributable  to  causes  which  might  have  been  avoided,  and  not  to 
the  system  itself.  Breeding  from  immature  and  forced  stock  has 
so  reduced  the  power  of  resistance  that  degeneracy  has  naturally 
supervened,  together  with  neglect  of  hygienic  precautions.  The 
story  is  fully  told  in  my  "Report  on  the  Poultry  Industry  in 
Belgium."  The  Viscomte  de  Beughem  owns  an  estate  in  the 
Lippeloo  district  of  East  Flanders,  and  he  has  for  some  years 
reared  a  large  number  of  the  famous  poulets  de  Bruxelles.  Every 
autumn  about  600  Malines  pullets  are  distributed  with  male 
birds  among  the  farms  on  the  estate,  from  thirty  to  fifty  on  each 
place.  These  remain  the  property  of  the  Viscomte,  and  have 
usually  been  replaced  every  year.  The  farmers  feed  and  care 
for  the  birds,  and  are  bound  to  sell  the  eggs  back  to  him,  the 
prices  paid  varying  from  Id.  to  nearly  2d.  each,  according  to  the 
season.  These  eggs  are  incubated  at  the  Chateau  de  Melis,  the 
chickens  reared  during  the  earlier  stages  within  enclosed  runs, 
and  afterwards  out  in  the  woods,  and  finally  sold  to  the  fatteners. 
So  far  as  these  arrangements  are  concerned — that  is,  when  the 
term  of  life  is  brief — no  harm  could  possibly  result.  The  failure 
has  been  due  to  the  fact  that  all  the  chickens  are  forced  for  size 
by  keeping  under  the  conditions  named,  and  that  selection  of 
the  breeders  has  been  from  these  birds.  No  attempt  was  made  to 
conserve  virility  by  use  of  fulty-matured  stock,  and  by  rearing 
those  intended  for  reproductive  purposes  in  a  manner  calculated 
to  maintain  and  develop  constitutional  vigour.  That  the 
system,  if  worked  out  on  better  lines,  could  be  made  permanently 
successful,  as  was  the  case  for  the  first  few  years,  I  do  not  doubt, 
though  considerable  modification  of  method  would  have  to  be 
adopted  from  that  followed  at  Lippeloo.  In  the  next  chapter 
will  be  found  particulars  of  a  somewhat  different  system  which 
I  met  with  in  America. 

Rough  Grazings. — Where  the  land  is  rough  and  the  country 
open,  much  might  be  done  to  increase  the  breeding  of  poultry. 
That,  however,  would  have  to  be  on  a  totalty  different  principle, 
due  mainly  to  the  fact  that  success  is  dependent  largely  upon  the 
human  factor,  and  the  population  is  sparse  in  these  districts. 

7 


98  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Poultry  cannot  be  put  out  on  the  hillsides,  as  can  cattle  or  sheep, 
and  left  to  themselves.  Farmers  and  labourers  living  under  such 
conditions  may  do  much  more  than  at  present,  though  at  first  on 
a  moderate  scale.  The  equipment  required  would  consist  of  a 
few  portable  houses  which  can  be  scattered  about  during  the  more 
favourable  months  of  the  year,  say  from  March  to  October,  and 
then  be  brought  nearer  home.  The  chief  source  of  profit  would 
be  by  sale  of  grown  chickens  as  breeding  or  laying  stock,  for 
which,  if  the  supply  were  adequate,  I  believe  a  great  demand 
could  be  created.  Hatching  operations  sho\dd  commence  as 
early  as  fertile  eggs  are  obtainable,  and  the  chickens  be  given  full 
range  as  soon  as  the  infantile  period  has  passed.  In  this  way 
the  cost  of  rearing  would  be  small,  and  the  birds  be  of  a  vigorous 
tyj)e.  Under  such  conditions,  usually  the  more  vigorous  and 
hardier  races  would  have  to  be  kept,  such  as  the  non-sitters  and 
general  purpose  breeds,  though  on  some  of  the  kindlier  soils 
I  should  be  glad  to  see  a  trial  made  of  rearing  chickens  for 
sale  to  fatteners,  which  if  carried  out  over  a  fair  area  should 
provide  a  fairly  regular  supply.  As  an  instance,  Dorkings  have 
thriven  excellently  on  the  dry  hill-lands  of  Cumberland  and  West- 
morland ;  and  that  being  so,  other  races  might  be  equally  successful. 

Labour. — So  far  as  larger  farms  are  concerned,  the  main  diffi- 
culty has  been  absence  of  knowledge  in  the  principles  of  poultry 
husbandry  on  the  part  of  farm  workers,  who  in  too  manj'  cases, 
like  their  masters,  have  thought  hens  of  small  moment,  and  that 
anything  would  do  for  poultry.  I  am  not  now  speaking  of  skilled 
jDOultrjnnen,  of  whom  the  supply  is  all  too  few,  but  of  agricultural 
workers.  Not  many  farmers  would  find  it  worth  their  while  to 
engage  labour  for  this  purpose  alone.  What  they  want  is  a  man 
who  can  attend  to  poultry  as  part  of  his  work.  During  the  past 
few  j^ears  I  have  had  many  inquiries  for  such  men,  and  very 
seldom  knew  where  to  find  them.  This  is  an  important  point, 
and  has  undoubtedly  hindered  development.  When,  therefore, 
the  business  contemplated  was  beyond  the  scope  of  his  wife  or 
daughter — that  is,  was  extensive  rather  than  concentrated — the 
labour  question  has  often  been  the  main  difficulty.  The  specialist, 
man  or  woman,  is  of  no  use  in  this  way.  W^hat  will  have  to  be 
done  is  to  gradually  train  the  younger  generation,  and,  with  a 
largely  inci'eased  number  of  small  holdings  upon  which  poultrj^ 
occupy  an  important  place,  we  may  hope  that  the  sons  and 
daughters  of  the  next  generation  will  be  more  familiar  with  this 
branch  than  is  now  the  case.  Instruction  in  poultry  husbandry 
has  generally  been  beyond  the  reach  of  this  class,  and  in  the  areas 
where  most  needed  is  given  least. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

POULTRY  ON  SMALL  HOLDINGS  AND  ALLOTMENT'S 

The  term  "  small  holding  "  is  now  regarded  as  applying  to  all 
occupations  from  5  to  50  acres  in  extent,  whilst  "  allotment  " 
is  imderstood  to  mean  those  of  less  than  5  acres.  It  is  impossible, 
however,  to  limit  ourselves  in  this  way,  for  in  many  instances 
what  can  be  clone  on  a  farm  of  100  acres  may  be  applied  with 
equal  success  on  one  half  that  area.  As  a  rule,  however,  save 
on  poorer  lands,  small  holdings  are  usually  under  30  acres,  and 
there  is  every  prospect  that  the  number  of  these  will  increase. 
Of  the  total  number  of  agricultural  holdings  in  England  and  Wales 
in  1912,  46  per  cent,  were  within  the  designation  given  above, 
whilst  the  average  acreage  of  these  was  a  fraction  under  20  acres. 
Of  allotments,  leaving  out  those  of  less  than  an  acre  in  extent,  the 
num])er  in  the  year  named  comprised  21  per  cent,  of  the  total,  and 
the  average  size  was  a  fraction  over  3  acres.  It  is  well  to  keep 
these  facts  in  mind  when  studying  what  is  recommended  below. 

Small  Holdings. — Taking  this  class  of  farm  as  a  basis,  it  is 
evident  either  that,  if  a  living  is  to  be  obtained,  the  standard  of 
life  must  be  a  low  one,  or  the  production  be  enhanced  considerably 
above  what  is  usually  found  on  larger  farms.  Size  of  occupation 
has  its  importance,  as  have  the  nature  of  the  land,  the  labour 
required,  and  the  capital  expended.  The  great  difference,  how- 
ever, between  results  obtained  on  farms  of  the  same  acreage  is 
not  so  much  the  soil  or  position,  but  how  it  is  cultivated  and 
stocked.  My  point  is  that  small  holders  must  produce  more 
per  acre  than  larger  farmers  if  they  are  to  reap  an  adequate 
return  and  make  a  living  therefrom.  Therefore  the  poultry 
operations  must  be  on  more  intensive  lines — that  is,  the  land 
must  be  utilized  to  the  full.  As  shown  in  Chapter  I.,  the  number 
of  poultry  kept  usually  decreases  jpro  rata  to  the  increased  size 
of  holding.  It  is  from  the  smaller  occupations  we  obtain  the 
bulk  of  native  eggs  and  poultry  marketed,  which  is  also  true  in 


100  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

every  country.  Future  development  will  depend  in  large 
measure  upon  extension  of  this  class  of  the  rural  community. 
That  such  increase  would  do  much  to  add  to  the  fertility  and 
productiveness  of  the  soil  is  an  important  consideration.  To 
that  end  poultry  will  contribute  very  greatly. 

What  has  been  stated  in  the  previous  chapter  as  to  stock  and 
equipment  applies  also  to  smaller  holdings,  as  does  the  relative 
number  of  poultry  kept  to  the  acre.  It  is  more  profitable  to 
permanently  maintain  three  adult  fowls  per  acre,  which  can  be 
done  without  interference  with  the  ordinary  course  of  cropping, 
than  to  keep  a  larger  number,  and  later  on  be  compelled  com- 
pulsorily  to  reduce  the  stock.  If  distributed  about  the  holding 
in  the  way  alreadj^  described,  and  linked  with  cultivation,  on  a 
20-acre  farm  sixty  layers  and  breeders  may  all  the  time  form  the 
standing  stock  of  fowls.  From  these  a  profit  of  5s.  per  hen  per 
annum  over  the  food  cost  should  be  secured;  and  if  a  couple  of 
hundred  chickens  are  bred  every  season,  a  further  jirofit  of  £10 
should  be  returned,  making  in  all  £25  yearly  from  this  branch  of 
the  operations.  Larger  holdings  could  increase  the  stock  to  a 
similar  proportion.  Property  managed,  at  least  25s.  per  week  profit 
shoTild  be  realized  on  a  50-acre  farm.  If,  however,  distribution  can- 
not be  carried  out,  and  the  birds  must  be  kept  around  the  home- 
stead, the  stock  should  be  correspondingly  decreased  in  number. 

Stock  and  Equipment. — The  first  season  it  would  be  desirable 
to  buy  eight  to  ten  hens  and  a  cock  as  the  basis  of  the  stock, 
breeding  from  these,  in  addition  to  which  a  dozen  or  two  day-old 
chicks  of  the  same  breed  can  be  obtained,  and  thus  provide  the 
interchange  of  blood  desirable.  From  such  a  foundation  the 
small  holder  should  be  able  to  build  up  his  flocks  of  breeders  and 
layers.  Under  these  circumstances  he  will  as  a  commencement 
need  one  poultry  house  and  a  few  coops  or  a  brooder.  In  fact, 
as  a  temporary  expedient  he  may  make  shift  with  a  very  rough- 
and-ready  erection  for  the  breeding-pen,  so  long  as  it  is  well 
ventilated  and  the  birds  have  plentj^  of  space  to  wander  about, 
or  utilize  an  existing  building.  In  these  days  poultry  houses  can 
be  purchased  at  remarkably  low  prices.  It  will  not  tax  his  capital 
unduly,  therefore,  to  buy  his  first  house,  as  he  is  certain  to  be 
very  busy  in  other  waj^s.  He  may  later  on  construct  what 
others  will  be  required  as  opportunity  permits.  Often  materials 
can  be  obtained  cheaplj^  which  answer  excellently  for  this  pur- 
pose. Packing-cases  of  various  kinds  will  do  admirably,  pro- 
vided the  wood  is  substantial  and  durable.  Even  if  new  timber 
has  to  be  purchased,  considerable  saving  ca^n  be  made  in  cost  by 
the  method  suggested. 


SMALL  HOLDINGS  AND  ALLOTMENTS  101 

The  point  must  here  be  emphasized  that  every  house  should 
be  portable,  which  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  it  should  be 
on  wheels,  but  that  its  size  and  construction  should  be  such  that 
it  can  be  easily  removed  to  another  location.  Large  fixed  houses 
are  a  mistake  under  the  conditions  here  referred  to,  not  alone 
from  the  fact  that  to  move  them  means  heavy  labour  and  expense, 
but  also  that  the  difficult}^  of  doing  so  frequently  results  in 
keeping  fowls  too  long  on  one  place,  and  consequent  tainting  of  the 
ground.  There  is  always  a  temptation  to  build  long-range 
houses,  as  described  in  Chapter  X.,  but  that  I  regard  as  undesirable 
for  the  small  holder.  Few  poultry-keepers  who  have  put  down 
fixed  houses  have  not  ultimately  found  that  changes  might  be 
made  with  advantage,  and  have  experienced  loss  arising  from 
want  of  plasticity  in  their  equipment.  It  is  not  suggested  that  no 
houses  are  to  be  used  which  need  not  be  moved  for  a  long  period, 
perhaps  several  years ;  if  these  are  built  in  sections  or  are  not  too 
big  to  transfer  on  rollers,  the  owner  is  master  of  the  position,  and 
can  transpose  them  if  he  thinks  it  desirable  to  do  so.  The 
ordinary  portable  houses  on  wheels  or  runners  are  to  be  recom- 
mended for  use  on  the  open  fields,  as  they  can  be  moved  from 
place  to  place  in  a  few  minutes,  and  offer  the  great  advantage  of 
preventing  any  damage  to  grass,  and  of  causing  a  wider  distribu- 
tion of  the  manure,  by  which  the  land  and  crops  will  greatly 
benefit.  In  this  way  convenience  of  the  owner  and  health  of  the 
inmates  are  both  provided  for,  and  the  work  is  not  hindered  by 
rigidity.  This  system  will  not  overtax  either  the  resources  or 
the  labour  of  any  hard-working  small  holder,  and  if  properly 
carried  out  has  all  the  elements  of  permanency. 

The  Colony  System. — Alternative  to  the  distributive  method 
is  that  known  under  this  name,  and  which,  I  am  convinced, 
has  great  advantages.  Probably  upon  small  holdings  and 
allotments  alike,  except  very  small  plots,  it  will  yield  the  greate;-.t 
amount  of  return.  In  short,  I  feel  convinced  that  development 
of  the  poultry  industry  is  largely  dependent  upon  adoption  of  thia 
method.  Below  are  described  several  places  where  the  plan  hau 
been  successfully  carried  out.  There  are,  however,  a  few  points 
which  require  elucidation.  Upon  attention  to  these  success  will 
largely  depend.  The  one  disadvantage  is  that  there  may  be  a 
slightly  increased  cost  of  equipment  as  compared  with  the  dis- 
tributive method,  though  that  is  not  always  the  case.  It  will 
also  be  found  necessarj^  to  isolate  the  birds  by  wire  netting, 
especially  if  the  adjoining  land  be  in  vegetables  or  small  fruit. 
If  the  land  is  arable  or  pasture  that  is  seldom  required.  As  com- 
pensation there  is  a  considerable  saving  of  labour.     The  birds  arc 


102  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

concentrated,  and  can  all  be  attended  to  at  once.  Further,  by 
the  colonj'  method  a  larger  stock  can  be  kept  in  proportion  to  the 
total  acreage.  The  principle  is  that  the  birds  are  kept  thickly 
on  one  place  for  twelve  months,  when  they  are  bodily  removed 
to  fresh  groimd,  that  vacated  not  being  used  again  for  poultry  until 
three  years  have  elapsed,  during  which  time  it  is  cropped  f  ullj^  each 
season  so  as  to  exhaust  and  utilize  the  manure.  The  last-named 
is  essential  to  complete  success — that  is,  x^oultry  must  form  one  in  a 
four-course  rotation.  If  such  a  principle  could  be  generally  adopted, 
thp  doing  so  would  prevent  much  loss  in  virility  and  by  disease. 

A  Hertfordshire  Farm. — Mr.  T.  W.  Toovey,  of  King's  Langley, 
Herts,  has  for  manj^  j^ears  experimentalized  as  to  poultrj^  hus- 
bandrj^  gaining  valuable  experience.  Reference  is  made  to  his 
operations  in  Chapter  X.  This  breeder  is  always  ready  to  test 
any  new  system,  and  publishes  freely  the  results  arrived  at.  On 
one  of  his  farms  he  has  adopted  a  colony  method  which  has 
special  features.  This  is  on  high  arable  land,  fully  exposed. 
After  use  thickly  by  poultry  for  a  year,  during  the  next  four  or 
five  years  it  is  cultivated,  and  the  influence  upon  the  crops,  as 
compared  with  what  was  the  case  formerly  on  this  land,  is  very 
great  indeed.  At  first  larger-sized  houses  were  used.  It  was 
found,  however,  that  the  fowls  crowded  a  few  of  these,  leaving  the 
others  empty,  and  that  during  the  prevalence  of  strong  winds 
the  houses  were  frequently  blown  over.  In  place  of  these,  very 
small  low-roofed  erections  are  employed,  which  are  best  described 
as  very  large-barred  fronted  coops.  These  are  grouped  in  lots  of 
fourteen,  seven  in  a  row,  each  row  facing  the  other,  with  a  narrow 
avenue  between.  The  first  two  of  these  huts  at  each  end  are 
chained  together,  which  has  been  found  necessary  as  a  defence 
against  strong  winds.  That  is  sufficient,  for  if  the  first  two  were 
blown  over  all  the  rest  would  follow.  If  they  are  firm  those 
between  do  not  move.  Within  the  rows  are  placed  laying  boxes 
separate  from  the  coops.  Each  lot  of  fourteen  houses  is  enclosed 
in  a  netted  run  of  half  an  acre,  on  which  about  a  hundred  buds 
are  kept.  In  these  runs  are  placed  shelter  sheds  for  protection 
during  the  daytime,  and  the  position  compels  them  to  forage 
about  to  keep  themselves  warm.  It  may  be  stated  that  the 
fields  are  open,  as  a  consequence  of  which  the  wire  netting  referred 
to  has  to  be  used,  otherwise  the  birds  would  trespass  on  the 
cultivated  portions.  Mr.  Toovey  states  that  "  when  eggs  are 
scarcest,  the  most  exposed  birds  have  done  the  best." 

Rhode  Island,  U.S.A. — It  was  in  this  State  that  I  first  saw  the 
colony  system  adopted  on  a  considerable  scale,  and  in  association 


SMALL  HOLDINGS  AND  ALLOTMENTS  103 

with  general  farming,  yet  systematized  and  conducted  on  definite 
lines.  I  have  never  seen,  not  even  in  the  most  important  poultry 
districts  of  Europe,  so  many  poultry  houses  within  the  same  area. 
To  such  an  extent  has  this  pursuit  growai  that  nearly  every  farm 
in  the  Little  Compton  district  has  a  larger  or  smaller  number. 
The  method  was  first  introduced  nearly  seventy  years  ago, 
gradually  extending  as  demand  for  produce  has  grown,  Boston 
being  the  chief  market.  Instead  of  long-range  poultry  houses, 
which  are  often  adopted  on  poultry  farms,  the  huts  are  separate, 
grouped  upon  one  part  of  the  farm,  and  the  whole  removed  to 
another  part  at  the  end  of  a  year.  The  houses,  shown  in  Plate  II., 
are  usualty  8  by  12  feet,  and  6  feet  high,  with  gabled  roofs. 
They  have  large  windows  in  front,  which  can  be  opened,  and  the 
usual  trap  entrance  for  hens.  Inside  they  are  fitted  with  perches 
and  nests,  and,  as  there  is  no  floor,  the  earth  is  thickly  covered 
with  sea-sand.  In  the  majority  of  cases  cattle  are  kept  on  the 
fields  at  the  same  time  as  the  fowls,  and  where  that  is  done  the 
customary  plan  is  to  fix  a  rail  fence  around  the  house  to  keep  the 
stock  away  from  the  water  vessels  and  food  troughs.  Each 
house  is  designed  to  hold  thirty-five  to  forty  fowls,  and  the 
customary  plan  is  to  allocate  one  such  house  to  an  acre  of  land. 
Thus,  on  a  farm  with,  say,  1,000  laj^ers  there  would  be  about 
thirty  houses,  and  a  corresponding  number  of  acres  would  be 
occupied.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  there  is  no  overcrowd- 
ing, and  that  the  balance  between  animal  and  plant  life  is  well 
maintained.  In  addition  to  the  area  referred  to,  a  further 
portion  of  the  land  is  required  for  chickens,  and  usually  about 
400  can  be  reared  to  the  acre  thus  in  use,  which  does  not  mean 
that  the  number  is  present  at  one  time,  for  such  is  the  yearly 
average.  The  cost  of  feeding  was  stated  to  be  about  3s.  4cl.  per 
head  per  annum,  as  the  birds  obtain  a  considerable  amount  of 
natural  food,  and  the  average  profit  given  to  me  was  one  dollar 
(4s.  2d.)  yearly.  Under  such  circumstances,  as  also  the  two 
other  instances  described  in  the  following  paragraphs,  whilst  it 
is  true  poultry  and  eggs  form,  it  may  be,  the  leading  production 
of  these  farms,  by  avoidance  of  overstocking  and  prevention  of 
tainted  soil,  in  combination  with  other  branches  of  agriculture,  a 
good  Hving  and  something  more  is  continuously  obtained. 
Certainly  for  many  years  a  comfortable  income  has  been  made 
by  farmers  in  this  section  of  the  State  of  Rhode  Island,  where 
prosperous  conditions  are  evident. 

South  Shore,  Massachusetts,  U.S.A. — As  a  confirmation  of 
what  is  stated  in  Chapter  II.  as  to  development  of  district  poultry 
industries,  may  be  mentioned  the  production  of  winter  fowls  to 


104  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

the  south  of  Boston  Bay,  in  the  United  States,  where,  within  the 
area  of  a  few  miles,  scores  of  thousands  of  these  fowls  are  reared 
and  marketed  annually.  Some  phases  of  this  branch  of  poultry 
husbandry  are  further  treated  in  Chapter  XVII.,  which  should  be 
referred  to.  My  present  purpose  is  to  show  the  method  adopted, 
which  is  specially  suited  to  small  holdings,  provided  that,  in  order 
to  secure  a  regular  and  sufficient  supply,  a  number  of  occupiers 
shall  operate  on  the  same  lines,  together  with  co-operation  in 
marketing.  Isolated  attempts  are  of  little  use.  In  the  district 
named  the  farms  vary  from  40  acres  upwards.  The  plan 
adopted  is  to  keep  a  stock  of  breeders  for  producing  the  eggs 
required  for  hatching.  These  are  frequently  scattered  about 
the  farm,  though  in  some  instances  long-range  houses  have  been 
built,  which  I  regard  as  less  desirable,  for  in  that  case  enclosed 
runs  have  to  be  attached.  From  these  the  chickens  are  bred. 
After  the  latter  are  through  the  earlier  stages,  the  birds  are  thickly 
placed  on  the  land  in  scattered  colony  houses,  each  holding 
fifty  birds,  but  given  free  range.  On  one  farm  of  40  acres  which 
I  visited,  6,000  birds  had  that  year  been  reared  and  marketed. 
The  houses  used  were  7  by  6  feet,  with  open  or  netted  fronts, 
and  well  built,  yet  easily  removed  as  required.  About  10  acres 
were  in  use  for  this  purpose.  As  the  rearing  season  extends  over 
seven  months  out  of  the  twelve,  as  soon  as  that  period  was  over 
the  land  was  ploughed  up  and  planted  with  rye  grass  to  sweeten 
and  thus  utOize  the  manure.  Even  with  that  precaution,  m  some 
cases,  as  might  be  expected  from  what  has  been  stated  previously, 
it  has  been  evident  that  too  many  birds  were  being  reared,  for 
since  the  time  of  my  visit  less  satisfactory  results  have  been 
obtained,  not  only  due  to  actual  disease,  but  to  lessened  fertility 
of  eggs  and  increased  mortality  of  chickens. 

This  is  an  experience  by  no  means  peculiar,  so  long  as  the  due 
relationship  of  animal  to  plant  life  is  not  maintained.  It  is  not 
the  success  achieved  in  the  first  two  or  three  A'cars  which  deter- 
mines this  question,  but  when  accumulation  of  unexhausted 
manurial  influences  makes  itself  manifest.  South  Shore  roasters, 
as  they  are  called,  are  in  many  cases  capons,  and  have  not  only 
an  abundance  but  a  fine  quality  of  soft  flesh.  The  system 
has  sufficiently  proved  its  practicality  and  profitability.  It 
must,  however,  be  applied  in  accordance  with  the  rotation 
principles  laid  down  previously.  Li  Chapter  XVII.  will  be 
found  particulars  of  a  method  which  promises  to  be  very  valuable 
for  similar  purposes,  though  on  different  lines. 

Chicken  Production. — Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the 
influence  exerted  upon  prices  obtained  for  lean  chickens  where 


SMALL  HOLDINGS  AND  ALLOTMENTS  107 

fattening  establishments  are  within  reach.  Under  those  con- 
ditions, provided  the  land  is  suitable  and  the  necessary  attention 
can  be  given,  there  is  no  more  profitable  work  for  the  small,  and 
even  the  allotment,  holder,  than  the  keeping  of  breeding  stock  of 
a  suitable  class,  hatching  eggs  laid  by  them,  and  rearing  the 
chickens  to  about  three  months  old,  when  they  are  sold  to  the 
fatteners.  That  is  the  system  adopted  so  largely  in  the  south- 
eastern counties  of  England.  In  this  way  the  parent  flock  need 
not  be  large,  and,  as  the  youngsters  are  speedily  got  rid  of,  there 
are  few  risks  of  having  too  many.  To  a  more  limited  degree  the 
same  plan  has  been  introduced  in  a  few  Irish  counties,  as  in 
Belgium,  though  in  the  last-named  the  temptation  has  been  to 
unduly  increase  numbers  and  rear  on  intensive  lines,  which  have 
led  to  loss  of  vigour  in  the  birds.  What  may  be  termed  the 
Sussex  method  is  to  rear  under  more  or  less  natural  conditions, 
even  though  a  considerable  number  may  be  raised  every  season. 

A  South  Country  sa3dng  is  that  "  a  good  laying  hen  is  more 
profitable  than  a  breeding  ewe."  \^^lat  is  meant  is  that  the 
hen  through  her  progeny  will  return  more  money  than  the  sheep, 
considering  the  land  she  requires.  As  an  example,  upon  a  farm 
in  West  Kent  I  found  fifty  breeding  hens,  from  which  the  chickens 
hatched  in  one  season  for  sale  to  collectors  had  realized  £87. 
That  works  out  at  practically  35s.  per  hen,  which  would  be  a 
good  average  for  a  sheep.  This  is,  of  course,  a  gross  amount- 
But  when  food  and  labour  were  reckoned  the  margin  of  profit 
was  satisfactory.  Such  could  not  have  been  arrived  at  unless  the 
demand  was  constant  and  prices  good,  as  is  always  the  case  in 
fattening  areas.  Under  similar  conditions  this  branch  can  be 
strongly  commended  to  small  holders  in  such  localities.  The 
methods  adopted  should  be  conducive  to  early  lajang  and  hatch- 
ing, for  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  first  chickens  ready  for  sale  as 
soon  after  the  new  year  as  possible,  with  a  succession  on  to 
June  or  July.  As  fattening  establishments  increase  in  number, 
and  are  more  widely  distributed,  opportunities  in  the  direction 
indicated  will  increase.  Properly  managed  there  is  no  reason  why 
an  annual  return  of  £2  per  acre  should  not  be  realized  in  this 
manner  as  an  addition  to  the  general  work  of  the  farm. 

Sale  of  Duck  Eggs. — Duck-raising,  where  the  conditions  as  to 
soil  and  water  are  favourable,  is  within  the  scope  of  small  and 
allotment  holders.  Information  as  to  methods  is  given  in 
Chapter  XVIII.  My  immediate  purpose,  however,  is  to  show 
that  where  there  are  duck  breeders  a  demand  exists  for  eggs  for 
hatching  at  good  prices  from  October  to  March.  This  branch  of 
poultry   husbandry   is   usually   divided    into   two   sections,   by 


108  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

reason  of  the  fact  that  those  who  undertake  the  work  of  hatching 
and  rearing  find  it  more  conducive  to  a  regular  supply  of  eggs, 
and  it  is  more  profitable  to  buy  eggs  than  to  keep  the  stock  birds, 
due  to  the  fact  that,  as  the  latter  require  to  be  at  liberty,  in  order 
to  obtain  eggs  high  in  fertility  and  vigour  of  germs,  small  holders 
are  not  often  in  a  position  to  provide  the  most  favoured  con- 
ditions. As  I  show  in  the  chapter  referred  to,  that  is  not  the 
method  adopted  on  the  great  American  duck  plants.  We  have, 
however,  to  regard  our  special  conditions,  under  which  the 
adoption  of  the  dual  system  is  to  be  preferred. 

Where  the  land  is  gravel  or  porous  in  its  nature,  and  streams 
of  water  traverse  it,  affords  the  most  favourable  opportunity  for 
production  of  ducks.  Therefore  occupiers  living  in  vallej's  or  on 
flat  lands  frequently  have  the  conditions  which  should  be  taken 
advantage  of.  It  is  upon  these  that  the  finest  ducklings  are 
produced,  whether  at  home  or  abroad.  Water  is  the  natural 
element  of  this  species  of  poultry.  The  birds  may  either  be 
given  full  liberty,  except  that  they  should  have  enclosed  j^ards, 
and  not  be  allowed  out  until  after,  say,  10  a.m.  during  the  period 
of  laying,  by  which  hour  they  will  have  laid,  or  they  may  be 
kept  within  large  enclosures  of  which  a  running  stream  or  a 
pond  forms  a  considerable  portion.  The  main  point  is  early 
hatching,  so  that  the  young  ducks  may  begin  to  lay  in  the 
autumn,  for  older  birds  do  not  become  productive  until  the 
season  is  more  advanced.  The  last-named  should  be  alone  used 
for  breeding  the  stock  birds. 

Allotments.  —  When  we  come  to  smaller  occupations  such  as 
can  be  designated  allotments,  it  may  be  accepted  that  these  are 
unable  to  afford  an  adequate  living,  except  the  standard  of  life 
is  a  very  low  one.  Therefore  they  form  a  subsidiary  pursuit, 
supplemental  to  some  other  source  of  income.  It  is,  however,  of 
very  great  importance  that,  in  the  interest  of  individuals  and  the 
community  at  large,  every  encouragement  should  be  given  in  this 
direction.  It  is  imperative  to  promote  the  prosperity  of  the 
humbler  sections  of  our  rural  population  in  this  way.  As  an 
example, I  came  across  a  man  some  years  ago,  in  a  southern  county, 
who  told  me  that  the  previous  year  he  had  made  a  j)rofit  of  £7 
by  his  poultry.  That  seems  a  small  sum.  As  his  weekly  wage 
was  not  more  than  12s.,  it  meant  an  addition  of  nearly  25  per 
cent,  to  his  income,  which  was  a  substantial  increase.  A  further 
point  is  that,  as  the  allotment  holder  sui)j)lies  his  family  with 
vegetables,  it  is  a  great  gain,  more  especially  for  the  children,  if 
he  is  able  to  provide  them  with  eggs  and  an  occasional  fowl, 
neither  of  which  his  wife  would  or  could  afford  to  buy.     Further, 


SMALL  HOLDINGS  AND  ALLOTMENTS  109 

by  a  regular  system  of  rotation  he  can  greatly  advance  the 
fertility  of  his  land  for  cropping  by  manure  from  the  fowls. 
Where  a  mistake  is  often  made,  however,  is  in  thinking  that  a 
living  can  be  made  by  poultry  on  2  or  3  acres.  The  overturn 
can  never  be  enough  to  do  that.  What  explains  many  failures 
is  overcrowding — that  is,  attempting  and  expecting  too  much 
without  maintaining  the  relationship  between  stock  and  cultiva- 
tion.    It  is  the  latter  which  makes  the  former  possible. 

Division  of  the  Land. — Except  upon  larger  allotments — that  is, 
such  as  approach  the  5-acre  dividing  line  from  small  holdings,  in 
which  case  what  has  been  stated  in  the  earlier  paragraphs  of  the 
present  chapter  will  apph^ — it  is  generally  found  necessary  to 
divide  up  the  land  for  its  full  utilization,  otherwise  the  fowls  will 
do  a  considerable  amount  of  damage  to  gi'owing  crops.  Under 
such  circumstances  the  use  of  wire  netting  is  ima voidable. 
Unless  there  are  to  be  maintained  breeding-pens  of  pure  races 
which  must  be  kept  separate,  I  do  not  suggest  division  of  the 
land  into  runs.  Such  methods  are  not  desirable  for  the  allotment 
holder,  who  will  at  most  require  two  such  divisions,  first  for  the 
general  flock  of  layers,  and  second  to  be  used  for  a  pen  of  breeders 
early  in  the  year,  and  for  growing  chickens,  if  these  cannot  be 
given  liberty,  later  on.  When  the  chicks  are  young  they  can  be 
kept  in  coops  and  runs  on  one  of  the  ordinary  fields  or  plots. 
Wire  netting  is  alone  required  to  prevent  the  fowls  straying  at 
undesirable  times  on  to  the  cultivated  areas.  There  is,  I  believe, 
a  large  amount  of  misconception  as  to  the  damage  wrought  by 
fowls  among  growing  crops.  At  the  same  time  the  risk  is  con- 
siderably greater  where  the  holding  or  allotment  is  small  than  on 
larger  farms,  as  pro  rata  to  the  acreage  the  number  of  poultry 
will  be  greater.  An  application  of  the  colony  method  is,  there- 
fore, desirable  under  such  circumstances. 

Poultry  Allotments. — Much  can  be  accomplished  by  systematic 
management  on  small  areas  of  land.  They  might  be  reduplicated 
on  similar  allotments  or  gardens  all  over  the  country.  Where 
there  is  more  land  available  the  methods  as  recommended  for 
small  holdings  can  be  adopted.  The  principle,  however,  should 
be  the  same.  In  the  latter  the  four-course  rotation  is  to  be 
preferred — that  is,  three  years'  cultivation  and  one  year  poultry. 
What  I  now  wish  to  deal  with  are  sometimes  termed  poultry 
allotments — that  is,  where  land  is  taken  expressly  for  poultry. 
In  that  connection  an  essential  necessity  is  provision  for  changing 
the  nms.  Many  attempts  have  failed  due  to  neglect  in  this 
direction,  one  instance  of  which  will  suffice.     I  was  invited  by  a 


110  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

lady  in  the  North  of  England  to  see  some  poultry  allotments  on 
her  estate  recently  provided  for  the  labourers.  Splendid  houses 
had  been  built,  substantial  fences  erected  to  the  runs,  each  one- 
eighth  of  an  acre  in  extent,  and  the  location  was  excellent  as  well 
as  very  conviencnt.  There  were  some  dozen  of  these  allotments, 
forming  quite  a  model  plant  in  appearance.  No  provision,  how- 
ever, had  been  made  for  changing  the  ground.  I  informed  the 
well-meaning  owner,  as  the  houses  were  too  heavy  to  remove 
except  at  great  cost,  that  in  two  or  three  j^ears  the  ground  must 
become  tainted,  unless  it  were  dug  up  and  each  run  again  divided 
so  as  to  utilize  the  manure.  Manj^  other  cases  could  be  cited  in 
the  same  way.  Poultry  allotments  without  cultivation  can  have 
only  one  end.  Yet  they  may  be  made  successful  if  designed  on 
right  lines. 

Burnley  and  its  Allotments. — ^In  no  jDart  of  Britain  have  greater 
developments  taken  place  than  at  Burnley,  Lancashire,  where 
for  some  years  the  Northern  Utility  Poultry  Club  has  conducted 
laying  competitions.  That  thri\ang  manufacturing  town  is  a 
hotbed  of  poultry  enthusiasts,  who  have  done  wonders  in  spite  of 
many  difficulties,  and  the  having  to  pay  a  very  high  rental  for 
land,  sometimes  as  much  as  £10  per  acre,  not  by  reason  of 
productiveness,  but  from  its  proximity  to  the  town.  The  soot- 
coated  soil  does  not  at  first  sight  appear  good  for  fowls,  though 
upon  that  svibject  knowledge  is  superficial.  By  careful  manage- 
ment success  has  been  achieved.  The  methods  adopted  are 
ingenious  in  the  extreme,  utilizing  the  land  to  the  fullest  extent. 
When  it  is  stated  that  upon  one  such  allotment  of  half  an  acre  as 
many  as  500  birds,  old  and  young,  have  been  kept  at  one  time, 
and  that  34,500  eggs  were  produced  in  twelve  months,  it  is 
evident  the  system  is  on  intensive  lines.  It  should  be  stated 
that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  space  is  occupied  with  scratch- 
ing sheds,  and  that  in  many  cases  the  runs  are  partly  covered 
with  fine  ashes.  In  the  former  the  manure  does  not  foul  the 
ground,  and,  as  the  ashes  are  removed  from  time  to  time,  the  risk 
of  earth  taint  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Consequently,  what  is 
done  here  would  be  impossible  unless  the  system  were  rigidly 
applied,  and  detail  carefully  attended  to.  To  some  extent  a 
certain  amount  of  cultivation  takes  place,  and  many  of  the  men 
are  skilled  gardeners.  At  the  same  time  it  is  foimd  that  after  a 
few  years  a  rest  must  be  given  to  the  land,  even  with  all  the  pre- 
cautions that  may  be  taken,  as  evidenced  by  lesser  success  than 
in  the  earlier  years  of  occupation,  and  by  a  weakening  of  the 
stock  continuously  bred  and  kept  under  these  conditions.  The 
best  method  would  be  to  remove  to  fresh  ground,  but  that  is 


SMALL  HOLDINGS  AND  ALLOTMENTS  111 

difficult  by  reason  of  the  nature  of  the  houses  and  fences,  if  even 
land  were  obtainable,  which  is  not  always  the  case.  Later 
developments  have  been  in  the  direction  of  larger  areas,  which 
is  all  to  the  good.  My  own  impression  has  been  that  if  less  were 
attempted  with  fowls,  and  more  in  cultivation,  the  ultimate  gain 
would  be  greater.  Such  a  sj^stem  might  be  used  to  a  much  larger 
extent  under  similar  conditions  in  many  districts  than  is  now 
the  case — that  is,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  industrial  centres — and 
would  greatly  increase  home  production  of  eggs,  for  it  is  useless  in 
other  branches.  It  must,  however,  be  conducted  in  a  manner 
to  reduce  the  risks  of  manure-charged  earth,  which  is  the  bete  noire 
of  poultry  allotments,  \^^lat  is  met  with  at  Burnley  is  also 
found  throughout  the  manufacturing  districts  of  East  Lancashire 
and  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire. 

Renaix,  Belgium. — Parts  of  West  Belgium  in  many  respects 
have  similar  conditions  to  those  referred  to  in  the  previous 
paragraph.  Renaix  is  a  town  of  22,000  inhabitants,  and  many 
of  the  artisans  keep  poultry  on  industrial  lines,  not  merely  for 
suppl}^  of  their  own  households,  but  for  sale  of  the  produce,  and 
as  a  supplemental  pursuit,  which  always  is  the  case.  These  people 
live  in  the  suburbs  of  the  town,  where  they  are  able  to  rent  a 
hectare  (2|  acres)  of  good  land  at  120  francs  (£4  16s.)  per  annum, 
or,  inclusive  of  a  small  dwelling-house,  at  200  francs  (£18)  yearly. 
Under  these  conditions  there  is  not  the  same  intensification,  nor 
are  as  many  birds  kept,  whilst  the  land  is  cropped  or  eaten  off 
by  other  stock.  Many  of  these  operatives  are  from  farmer 
families,  and  understand  methods  of  cultivation.  As  a  rule  forty 
to  fifty  hens  would  be  kept  upon  each  of  these  holdings,  and  not 
more.  The  reverse  is  often  true  with  our  people,  who  think  of 
poultry  and  nothing  else.  They  do  not  realize  that  animal  life 
cannot  exist  by  itself. 


CHAPTER  IX 

BREEDING  PLANTS  AND  FARMS 

Grossly  abused  has  been  the  term  "  poultry  farm,"  the 
raeanmg  of  which  is  generally  misunderstood.  It  has  been  reck- 
lessly applied  to  all  sorts  of  places,  from  backj^ards  to  big 
concerns.  In  one  instance  letters  to  the  Press  and  printed  note- 
paper  gave  the  impression  of  a  farm  of  considerable  size.  Yet  it 
was  comprised  within  a  small  village  garden,  and  the  birds  on 
it  had  not  reached  half  a  score.  We  should  not  despise  the  day 
of  small  things,  rather  the  reverse,  for  it  is  by  evolution  from  the 
lesser  that  we  are  most  likely  to  reach  the  greater.  Designations 
also  are  often  an  inspiration.  They  should,  however,  be  retained 
for  personal  contemplation  until  something  has  been  achieved, 
until,  in  fact,  there  is  a  measure  of  relationship  between  actuality 
and  terms  which  are  applied.  It  would  be  as  fitting  for  a 
cottager  to  call  his  place  a  "  fruit  farm  "  because  he  has  half  a 
score  trees  and  bushes,  as  call  "  poultry  farms  "  some  of  the 
plants  advertised.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  poultry  hus- 
bandry has  suffered  much  at  the  hands  of  its  friends.  Even 
more  serious,  however,  is  the  misinterpretation  of  the  term. 
Generally  speaking  it  is  thought  that  the  so-called  poultry  farms 
are  chiefly  concerned  with  the  production  of  eggs  and  chickens 
for  human  consumption,  whereas  the  fact  is  that  in  this  direction 
they  have  a  very  limited  influence.  Probably  99  per  cent,  of  the 
establishments,  large  and  small,  to  which  this  name  is  given 
should  be  called  "  poultry-breeding  plants,"  and  to  them  the 
word  "  farm  "  is  totally  unsuitable.  Many  combine  exhibiting 
with  other  operations,  such  prizes  as  may  be  won  acting  as  a 
means  of  advertisement  to  secure  customers. 

Influence  of  Breeding  Farms. — In  Chapter  II.  reference  will 

be  found  to  the  place  of  such  establishments  in  relation  to  poultry 

husbandry.     As   there   stated,    I   regard   them   as   essential   to 

development,  and  that  ^ari  passu  with  increase  of  poultry  upon 

112 


BREEDING  PLANTS  AND  FARMS  113 

farms,  small  holdings,  allotments,  and  elsewhere,  so  will  the  need 
for  these  correspondingly  advance.  They  have,  therefore,  an 
important  function  in  promoting  progression  of  the  indvistry  as  a 
whole,  and  in  fuller  realization  of  the  national  food  resources. 
Formerly  farmers  and  others  when  purchasing  fresh  stock 
obtained  birds  or  eggs  for  hatching  from  fanciers  or  exhibitors, 
who  thus  found  a  profitable  outlet  for  their  surplus  birds  and 
eggs.  Thanks,  however,  to  the  undue  exaltation  of  abnormal 
characters  and  disregard  of  economic  qualities  in  exliibition  stock, 
the  results  are  often  unsatisfactory.  As  stated  by  Professor 
Eugene  Davenport,  "  when  our  standards  are  decidedly  against 
the  highest  fertility  they  are  dangerous,  if  not  fatal,  to  the  race  " ; 
and  the  samea  pplies  to  productiveness  of  eggs  or  flesh  and  to 
constitutional  vigour.  As  a  result  there  have  come  into  being 
a  large  number  of  poultrj^-breeding  plants,  some  on  a  large  scale, 
where  birds  can  be  obtained  which,  whilst  retaining  the  racial 
characteristics,  are  chiefly  bred  for  their  productive  qualities. 
These  have  largely  captured  the  trade  once  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  fanciers.  In  this  direction  there  are  greater  possibilities  as 
yet  untouched.  As  a  further  fact,  the  specialist  poultryman 
must  take  up  this  branch  if  he  is  to  succeed.  In  brief,  the  so- 
called  great  poultry  farms  at  home  and  abroad  depend  for  their 
success  upon  the  sale  of  stock  birds,  etc.  That  this  branch 
requires  considerable  training  and  a  high  standard  of  qualifications 
may  be  accepted.  Such  are,  however,  within  the  powers  of 
many  if  they  have  the  resources  and  determination  required. 

Mainly  Supplemental. — There  are  a  few  examples  of  farmers 
who  have  taken  iip  this  work,  as  in  other  branches  of  domesticated 
animals,  and  who  specialize  in  production  of  breeding  stock,  etc. 
No  reason  can  be  adduced  why  the  number  should  not  be  largely 
increased.  They  have  the  decided  advantage  of  ability  to  give 
their  birds  plenty  of  range,  and  to  rear  the  chickens  under  the 
most  favourable  conditions.  The  business,  however,  requires 
steady  and  persistent  attention,  involving  a  considerable  amount 
of  correspondence  and  intelligent  anticipation,  as  well  as  careful 
study  of  breeds.  As  a  rule  specialist  establishments  are  run  on 
poultry  lines,  and  everything  else  is  supplemental.  When  that  is 
so,  a  risk  is  ever  present  of  attempting  more  than  the  amount  of 
land  available  warrants.  Some  of  the  most  successful  poultry- 
breeding  farms  prove  that  this  can  be  avoided,  where  the  prin- 
ciples laid  down  as  to  the  relationships  of  animal  and  plant  life 
are  observed.  In  several  such  cases  at  which  the  operations  are 
on  a  sufficientl}-  large  scale,  not  only  has  a  good  living  been  made, 
but  a  competency  secured.     I  am  convinced  that  on  the  more 


114  POULTllY  HUSBANDRY 

open  areas  many  farms  of  this  class  could  be  established  success- 
fully, even  though  not  so  accessible  as  might  otherwise  be 
desired. 

As  a  rule,  however,  the  great  majority  of  breeding  plants  are 
operated  upon  a  smaller  scale,  and  are  not  regarded  as  a  means 
of  living,  but  as  a  supplemental  source  of  income.  If  advertise- 
ments in  the  newspapers  or  other  publications  are  studied,  it  will 
be  evident  that  this  is  true.  In  many  respects  that  is  preferable, 
though  not  in  all.  The  risk  is  that  a  large  number  of  these 
breeders  are  compelled  to  keep  their  birds  in  small  runs,  as  a 
result  of  which  the  progeny  are  less  vigorous  than  would  other- 
wise be  the  case.  Introduction  of  the  scratching-shed  system 
and  better  knowledge  of  feeding  have  done  something  to  counter- 
act these  influences,  though  nothing  can  take  the  place  of  a  better 
environment.  Many  small  breeders  look  forward  to  the  time 
when  they  can  enlarge  their  borders,  but  have  wisely  commenced 
on  a  moderate  scale.  My  own  view  is  that  we  owe  more  than  is 
generally  acknowledged  to  this  class  of  breeder,  who,  with  all  his 
limitations,  has  done  much  to  meet  a  demand  for  better-class 
poultry. 

Small  and  Large  Plants. — There  are  two  ways  of  carrying  on  a 
breeding  poultry  farm :  First,  b}^  concentration  entirely  upon  sale 
of  stock,  eggs  for  hatching,  etc.,  in  which  case  all  surplus  birds 
other  than  those  required  in  the  breeding-pens,  or  that  may  be 
regarded  as  saleable,  are  sold  off,  so  that  at  the  commencement 
of  each  new  year  the  number  of  adult  poultry  will  be  at  its 
minimum.  This  is  the  plan  recommended  to  those  whose  land 
is  limited.  To  attempt  more  than  that  is  frequent!}^  to  lose  all. 
Under  such  conditions  it  is  imperative  that  the  runs  shall  be  given 
as  much  rest  as  possible,  or  be  heavily  cropped.  And,  second,  by 
combination  of  egg  production  in  larger  flocks  of  unmated  hens, 
and  having  as  many  selected  breeding-pens,  to  supply  eggs  for 
hatching  either  at  home  or  for  sale,  as  can  be  maintained.  Upon 
farms  of  fair  size  where  carried  out  successfully  the  advan- 
tages are  that  there  is  usually  much  wider  choice  of  birds  for 
breeders,  as  the  total  number  is  large,  and  that  the  yearling 
hens  can  be  kept  on  range  during  their  first  year,  when  the  eggs 
laid  by  them  should  more  than  pay  the  food  cost.  Attention  is 
called  in  Chapter  IV.  to  the  importance  of  not  using  bkds  in  their 
first  year  as  breeders.  On  smaller  plants  one  of  the  main  diffi- 
culties is  to  keep  the  pullets  until  the  second  year.  The  tempta- 
tion is  to  mate  them  up  at  the  earlier  period,  even  where  the 
undesirability  of  so  doing  is  recognized.  An  excellent  plan  is  to 
send  the  pullets  out  to  a  farm  for  the  first  year.     That  would  pay 


BREEDING  PLANTS  AND  FARMS  115 

both  parties  to  the  arrangement  if  fairly  carried  out.  The 
drawback  is  that  there  cannot  be  the  testing  necessary  to  prove 
which  are  the  more  prolific  layers,  which  is  important  in  the  egg- 
producing  breeds. 

Equipment. — Upon  larger  breeding  farms  what  has  been  fully 
described  in  the  two  previous  chapters  may  be  adopted — that  is, 
distribution  over  the  land,  with  perhaps  a  few  enclosed  yards  for 
specially  selected  breeders.  Such  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  as 
breeding-pens  on  range  will  not  usually  mix.  In  that  case 
portable  houses  are  commended.  As  a  question  of  economizing 
labour,  the  plan  frequently  adopted  is  to  have  all  the  pens  within 
restricted  areas,  more  especially  if  several  breeds  are  kept,  as  the 
risks  of  mixing  are  thus  thought  to  be  minimized.  Provided 
that  as  chickens  and  during  the  first  year  the  birds  have  had 
free  range,  this  arrangement  answers  admirably.  The  mistake 
generally  made,  however,  is  in  having  the  runs  too  small.  Long- 
range  houses  divided  into  compartments  tend  in  this  direction, 
as  does  the  desire  to  economize  space  and  fencing.  On  some  of 
the  best  breeding  poultry  farms  with  which  I  am  acquainted 
quarter-acre  plots  are  used,  which  are  quite  small  enough  for  a 
cock  and  ten  hens — that  is,  if  to  be  used  continuously  year  after 
year.  Even  under  such  conditions,  when  the  breeding  season  is 
over  it  is  desirable  to  remove  the  inmates,  and  either  feed  off  the 
grass  by  sheep  or  cut  for  hay,  or,  if  arable,  plough  and  j)lant  with 
a  quick-growing  crop.  Such  a  run  is  ample  for  the  number  of 
birds  stated  above.  If  planted  with  bush  or  other  fruit  there 
will  be  a  dual  return.  In  these  runs  a  roomy  house  should  be 
provided.  It  will  be  evident,  however,  that  with  original  cost 
and  maintenance  of  house  and  fencing  the  equipment  cannot  be 
less  than  £1  per  inmate  per  annum,  so  that  this  system  would 
not  be  profitable  where  market  production  is  the  object.  As  the 
returns  will  be  considerably  higher  upon  breeding  farms,  the 
greater  expense  maj'^  be  fully  justified.  At  the  same  time,  where 
the  range  system  is  possible  it  means  reduction  of  first  and  annual 
expenditure.  I  cannot  too  strongly  emphasize  the  important 
part  that  cultivation  of  the  soil  must  take  in  such  plants  whether 
large  or  small.  Many  have  ultimately  failed  by  reason  of  neglect 
on  this  score. 

Exhibiting. — On  a  few  of  these  specialist  establishments  where 
the  breeding  of  utility  poultry  is  the  leading  object,  a  moderate 
amount  of  attention  is  paid  to  exhibiting,  though  that  is  generally 
among  the  more  practical  races.  The  main  object  is  to  obtain 
an  advertisement  for  the  stock.     Showing  fowls  is  seldom  profit- 


110  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

able  for  its  owii  sake.  Where  the  fancy  side  is  developed  separate 
strains  must  be  kept,  although  on  farms  where  large  numbers  of 
birds  are  hatched  every  year  occasionally  specimens  are  prodviced 
high  in  show  qualities.  At  the  same  time  it  is  often  good  policy 
to  send  a  few  birds  to  agricultural  or  local  shows,  even  though 
these  are  almost  entirely  run  on  fancy  lines. 

Class  of  Stock. — The  amateur  or  exhibitor  may  choose  the 
breed  or  breeds  he  will  keep  to  please  himself,  whereas  the  poultry- 
man  who  caters  for  a  trade  in  stock,  etc.,  must  have  the  poultry 
his  customers  desire  and  are  willing  to  buy.  Therefore  it  is 
important  that  he  shall  be  up  to  date  in  his  stock.  For  his  pur- 
pose, it  is  useless  having  the  best  races  in  existence  if  there  is  an 
insufficient  demand  or  the  prices  obtainable  are  meagre.  In 
this  respect  changes  are  constantly  taking  place.  Within  my 
own  observation,  many  breeds  have  had  periods  of  great  popu- 
larity, when  it  was  difficult  to  supply  orders.  Then  came  a  lull, 
and  afterwards  a  decline  in  public  favour.  No  rule  can  be  laid 
down  for  such  vagaries.  It  is  not  a  question  of  productiveness 
alone,  but  largely  of  fashion  or  novelty.  One  point,  however, 
must  be  mentioned — namely,  it  is  often  true,  when  first  intro- 
duced, that  a  breed  is  highly  fecund,  due  doubtless  to  the  change 
of  environment  already  noted,  and  that  after  a  time  this  is  not 
maintained,  as  a  result  of  which  demand  falls  off.  In  other  cases, 
when  a  breed  is  boomed,  its  advocates  exaggerate  its  qualities, 
so  that  buyers  are  disappointed.  Some  breeds  have  held  their 
position  to  a  remarkable  degree  by  the  possession  of  sterling 
qualities.  Even  with  these  there  are  times  of  lessened  popu- 
larity. After  a  period  of  decline  they  usually  regain  their 
position.  What,  therefore,  the  breeder  must  do  is  to  study  and 
even  anticipate  these  changes,  selecting  his  breeds  accordingly. 
On  some  of  the  smaller  plants  it  is  found  better  to  have  only 
one  or  two  breeds.  On  larger  places  many  may  be  kept,  in  which 
direction  the  practical  breeder  differs  from  the  fancier,  who  must 
concentrate  if  he  wishes  to  succeed.  And  as  higher  prices  can 
always  be  obtained  for  pure-bred  stock,  or  eggs  for  hatching  and 
day-old  chicks  from  these,  than  for  cross-breds,  the  former 
should  be  maintained. 

Sale  of  Stock  Birds. — Primarily  poultry-breeding  farms  are 
engaged  in  the  work  of  supplying  fully-grown  birds  suitable  for 
stock  purposes,  and  in  manj^  cases  that  forms  the  greater  part 
of  the  trade  done,  though  in  recent  days  eggs  for  hatching  and 
day -old  chicks,  dealt  with  in  later  paragiaphs,  frequently  bulk 
largest  in  the   returns.     On  even  a  three-years  basis — that  is. 


BREEDING  PLANTS  AND  FARMS  119 

the  average  life  of  poultry  extends  over  the  period  stated 
— upwards  of  8,000.000  stock  fowls,  to  say  nothing  of  ducks, 
geese,  and  turkeys,  have  to  be  bred  annually  to  maintain  the 
existing  stock  of  poultry  on  farms  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
without  provision  for  any  increase  whatever.  The  great  majority 
of  these  are  bred  on  the  places  where  they  are  destined  to  live. 
At  the  same  time  considerable  numbers  are  sold  and  purchased 
in  one  way  or  another.  If  we  compute  that  only  1  per  cent,  of 
the  new  flocks  coming  into  profit  every  year  are  purchased, 
which  is  a  very  conservative  estimate,  that  would  mean  a  demand 
for  80,000  birds  every  year,  in  addition  to  which  would  be  the 
greater  extent  of  sale  to  amateiirs  and  the  smaller  grades  of 
poultry-keepers,  who  are  compelled  to  a  frequent  introduction  of 
fresh  stock  by  reason  of  their  conditions  making  to  a  greater 
extent  for  degeneracy  than  is  the  case  upon  farms.  From  what 
has  been  stated,  therefore,  it  is  evident  that  the  demand  is  a 
very  large  one,  and  that  as  poultry  husbandry  advances  the 
trade  will  correspondingly  increase.  The  mistake  which  is  often 
made  by  smaller  breeders  especially  is  in  expecting  that  they  can 
find  a  market  for  their  surplus  cockerels  alone,  which  are  often  a 
drug,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  there  are  too  many  of  them. 
Upon  the  basis  of  ten  females  to  one  male,  which  is  a  breeding 
average,  there  will  be  a  vastly  greater  sale  for  the  former  than  the 
latter,  even  when  we  take  into  account  the  fact  that  many 
farmers  and  others  breed  pullets  and  buy  cocks  to  mate  with 
them.  As  a  rule  the  number  of  cockerels  and  pullets  bred 
annually  are  fairly  equal  in  number.  Therefore  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  former  should  be  killed  off.  The  number  bred 
should  be  regulated  in  accordance  with  what  is  here  laid  down, 
so  that  the  proportion  of  pullets  may  have  due  relationship  to  the 
cockerels  likely  to  be  sold. 

Values. — At  one  period  the  value  of  a  fowl  for  stock  was  wholly 
determined  by  its  purity  of  race  and  the  degree  of  perfection  in 
external  characters.  Whilst  both  of  these  have  still  an  appre- 
ciable value,  another  factor  has  been  introduced,  more  especially 
in  connection  with  egg-producing  breeds — namely,  family  records 
in  the  direction  indicated.  As  a  consequence  what  are  called 
pedigree  strains  are  sold  largely,  in  which  the  productiveness 
is  indicated.  As  is  usually  the  case,  there  has  been  a  strong 
tendency  to  place  too  much  reliance  upon  single  year  perform- 
ances of  a  few  hens  out  of  flocks,  forgetful  of  the  fact  that  high 
fecundity  is  by  no  means  a  new  feature,  and  that  what  one  or  half 
a  dozen  hens  may  do  in  this  way  is  no  proof  that  even  their 
sisters  are  good  layers,  or  that  their  progeny  will  be  prolific.     At 


120  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

the  same  time,  when  we  arrive  at  the  stage  that  for,  say,  five 
successive  generations  a  family  has  proved  the  possesson  of  this 
quality,  the  value  will  be  much  enhanced.  Such  has  not  as  yet 
been  reached.  The  much  heralded  200-egg  strain,  though 
many  times  announced,  breaks  down  when  applied  to  an  entire 
flock,  even  in  a  modest  proportion.  What  has,  however,  always 
to  be  remembered  is  that  externals  have  a  leading  place,  though 
not  so  absolute  as  formerly.  Cross-bred  birds  for  stock  purposes, 
however  good  these  may  be  in  the  power  to  transmit  egg  or 
flesh  qualities,  will  never  realize  much  more  than  half  what 
pure-breds  will  command.  Consec{uently  the  latter  offer  greater 
returns  to  breeders.  The  value  of  stock  is  not  in  any  one 
direction,  but  lies  in  purity  of  race,  constitutional  vigour,  profit- 
able qualities,  and  age.  Breeders  who  have  given  the  greatest 
attention  in  these  directions  are  those  who  have  succeeded  to 
the  highest  degree,  and  are  able  to  command  the  best  prices  by 
reason  of  the  fact  that  they  can  give  value  for  money.  It  is  true 
that  some  classes  of  the  community  are  able  and  willing  to  paj' 
more  than  others.  At  the  same  time  there  is  a  measure  of 
equalization  between  price  and  value. 

Cost  of  Production. — An  essential  consideration  for  specialist 
poultry  breeders  is  the  cost  of  breeding,  hatching,  and  rearing 
fowls  to  what  may  be  termed  a  marketable  age.  In  the  case 
of  birds  intended  to  be  sold  for  stock  purposes,  that  is  usually 
when  they  are  from  six  to  eight  months  old.  After  the  age  named 
the  pullets  should  pay  for  their  keep  by  the  eggs  produced,  so  that 
if  we  take  seven  months  as  the  average  it  will  help  in  estimating 
the  cost  of  rearing,  premising,  however,  that  upon  general  farms, 
where  the  birds  have  abundant  opportunities  during  the  growing 
period  of  obtaining  a  considerable  part  of  their  food-supplies,  the 
expense  will  be  much  less.  As,  however,  breeding  farms  are 
usually  run  on  more  expensive  lines,  it  is  desirable  to  deal  in  terms 
applicable  to  these.  A  further  point  is  the  number  handled  in 
accordance  with  the  expense  of  labour  and  equipment,  neither  of 
which  can  here  be  stated  in  actual  figures. 

Experiments  conducted  upon  the  College  Poultry  Farm, 
Theale,  some  years  ago,  showed  that  chickens  could  be  grown  to 
twelve  weeks,  inclusive  of  the  egg,  oil  for  incubator  and  brooder, 
and  food,  at  a  cost  of  about  9d.  each.  If  to  that  amount  is  added 
interest  on  capital,  deterioration  of  plant  and  labour,  assuming 
that  operations  are  conducted  on  a  sufficient  scale  in  respect  to 
number  of  birds,  a  fair  computation  woulel  be  Is.  3d.  each  bird 
at  twelve  weeks  old.  From  that  age  the  food  cost  should  not 
exceed  an  average  of  lid.  per  week,  so  that  at  seven  months  old 


BREEDING  PLANTS  AND  FARMS  121 

(thirty  weeks)  the  actual  expense  will  be  3s.  6d.,  to  which  must 
be  added  the  items  already  named,  with  risks  of  losses  by  death, 
and  weeding  out  of  specimens  which  early  reveal  arrested  develop- 
ment, or  for  any  other  reason  are  unfitted  for  the  piirpose  in  view. 
My  own  estimate,  therefore,  is  that,  without  allowhig  any  margin 
of  profit,  the  prime  cost  of  breeding  stock  sold  in  this  way  is 
5s.  per  bird,  and  if  selection  is  rigid,  or  the  number  raised  small, 
it  will  be  higher ;  that  may,  however,  be  regarded  as  the  minimum 
under  the  conditions  named.  The  sum  named  allows  nothing 
for  advertising  or  for  other  expenditure  incurred,  though  it  may 
not  be  necessary,  nor  does  it  provide  for  exceptional  mortality. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  range  farmer  can  probably  produce  such 
stock  at  Is.  to  Is.  6d.  each  below  the  amount  named. 

Prices  of  Stock  Birds. — One  of  the  most  difficult  questions 
which  the  poultry  breeder  has  to  determine  is  the  price  he  shall 
ask  for  birds  he  has  to  dispose  of.  Very  often  this  will  be  decided 
by  what  people  will  pay,  rather  than  the  actual  value;  there  is, 
in  fact,  no  fixed  value.  I  have  known  cases  where  vendors  have 
sold  birds  of  the  same  flock  to  half  a  dozen  different  people  at 
as  many  prices,  simply  getting  as  much  as  possible  within 
reasonable  limits  from  each.  In  this  connection  we  must  re- 
member that  the  same  bird  may  be  worth  much  more  to  one 
Ijuyer  than  to  another;  the  vagaries  of  purchasers  are  often  very 
puzzling.  Even  though  they  never  intend  to  exhibit,  yet  more 
money  will  be  given  for  stock  advertised  as  from  a  prize  strain 
than  from  one  not  so  designated,  even  though  the  latter  may  be 
vastly  superior  for  practical  purposes.  Moreover,  popularity 
means  much;  if  a  breed  is  being  boomed  and  written  up,  a  de- 
mand is  created  which  means  enhancement  of  realizable  values, 
so  long  as  the  rage  continues.  All  breeders  have  experienced 
instances  of  this  kind.  When  the  Buff  Orpington  was  first  in- 
troduced, one  breeder  wrote  me  that  his  birds  were  what  had 
been  known  as  Lincolnshire  Buffs,  and  that  the  two  names 
represented  one  race,  Avhich  was  undoubtedly^  true  in  the  main, 
but  that  if  he  called  them  by  the  former  term  he  could  get  twice 
as  much  as  was  obtainable  if  dubbed  b}'  the  older  title. 

In  this  respect  reputation  is  of  great  importance.  A  well- 
established  breeder  who  has  made  his  name  can  always  secure 
better  prices  than  those  who  are  less  known;  that  is  so  in  every- 
thing. Some  there  are  who  find  it  more  profitable  to  sell  their 
stock  to  the  bigger  men  than  undertake  the  direct  trade  them- 
selves ;  in  fact,  there  is  a  great  amount  of  dealing  of  this  nature. 
Much  might  be  said  on  that  score,  but  is  unnecessary.  The 
final  vendor  is  really  a  retailer,  buying  from  others  in  a  wholesale 


122  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

fashion.  A  variation  of  method  is  placing  out  selected  birds  on 
farms,  and  bujang  in  the  chickens  bred  at  fixed  rates,  which  is 
certainly  more  legitimate,  in  that  the  original  stock  is  owned  by 
the  vendor. 

From  what  has  already  been  stated,  I  am  unable  to  see  that 
anyone  can  sell  well-grown  typical  healthy  birds  at  six  to  eight 
months  old,  even  with  a  very  moderate  amount  of  profit,  under 
6s.  6d.  to  7s.  6d.  each,  and  even  that  will  not  allow  much  margin 
for  trouble  and  risks  involved.  Such  an  average  might  pay  the 
breeder  who  only  regards  it  as  a  supplementary  pursuit;  to  the 
man  who  expects  to  make  a  living  out  of  the  business  that  would 
not  be  enough.  Many  buyers  expect  to  get  birds  at  4s.  or  5s. 
each,  or  even  less,  in  which  case  they  must  be  content  with 
inferior  or  late-hatched  specimens,  or  such  as  are  produced  by 
ordinary  farmers;  further,  cocks  or  cockerels  are  usually  50  per 
cent,  higher  in  price  than  females,  and  rightly  so.  A  female  can 
only  influence  her  own  progeny,  whereas  a  male  will  exert  his 
powers  over  every  hen  with  which  he  is  mated,  and,  moreover, 
he  costs  more  to  produce.  A  further  point  in  this  connection 
is  that  second-year  birds  which  have  not  been  used  for  breeding 
in  their  first  season  are  more  valuable  than  yearlings,  and  the 
male  birds  especially  have  cost  more  to  bring  to  that  stage; 
this  fact  is  seldom  recognized  by  purchasers,  who  prefer  young 
birds  because  they  are  cheaper. 

Period  of  Demand. — The  season  of  greatest  sale  in  this  country 
for  stock  birds  extends  from  September  to  February,  though  there 
is  a  demand  to  a  limited  extent  all  the  year  round.  Many  of 
the  more  systematic  breeders  aim  to  have  disposed  of  the  bulk 
of  their  saleable  flocks  by  Christmas;  at  the  same  time  they  usu- 
ally have  a  number  of  birds  beyond  their  actual  requirements, 
which  can  be  retained  if  not  sold,  but  are  available  if  demand 
arises  at  paying  prices.  For  the  simple  reason  that  everyone 
who  takes  up  this  work  desires  to  get  rid  as  soon  as  possible  of 
such  birds  as  he  does  not  require  for  breeding,  the  great  majority 
are  so  disposed  of  when  six  to  ten  months  old ;  and  as  the  buyers 
do  not  purchase  until  the  time  is  approaching  when  the  stock  are 
to  be  used,  these  influences  make  for  a  very  extensive  employment 
of  yearlings.  Though  it  be  fully  recognized  that  this  is  unde- 
sirable, I  cannot  see  how  it  can  be  avoided;  at  the  same  time 
the  question  is  one  of  considerable  importance,  tending  to  debili- 
tation if  the  practice  be  persisted  in.  What  should  be  done  is 
to  impress  the  importance  of  retention  of  good  breeders  into  the 
second  and  third  years,  and  make  the  younger  specimens  fewer 
in  number  than  those  more  fully  matured. 


BREEDING  PLANTS  AND  FARMS  123 

Export  Trade. — Some  of  the  larger  breeders  add  considerably 
to  their  returns  by  developing  business  relationships  with  British 
colonies  and  foreign  countries,  which  trade  is  capable  of  great 
increase.  In  the  earlier  days  it  was  chiefly  in  exhibition  fowls, 
for  which  high  prices  were  paid,  as  the  transit  charges  are  the 
same  on  poor  as  on  good  specimens,  and  it  appeared  to  be  more 
economic  to  purchase  the  best.  Within  recent  years  there  has 
been  a  growing  sale  of  utility  stock;  upon  that  aspect  of  the 
question  it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell,  as  the  business  is  restricted 
to  a  few  breeders.  Special  packages  have  to  be  provided,  giving 
the  birds  sufficient  space  and  enabling  them  to  be  fed  en  route. 
The  appliance  firms  supply  such  boxes  or  coops  as  have  proved 
useful  for  sea-voyages,  and  the  companies  engaged  in  shipping 
quote  terms  for  delivery  almost  anywhere.  Attention  to  the 
fowls  on  the  voyage  is  secured  by  a  payment  to  the  cook  or 
butcher  on  board  for  every  bird  he  lands  in  good  condition  at 
the  end  of  the  journey.  Those  forwarded  to  the  nearer  European 
countries  are  usually  sent  in  poultry  hampers.  One  fact  to  be 
kept  in  view  in  shipping  south  of  the  Equator  is  that  the  breed- 
ing seasons  are  opposite  to  those  north  of  the  Line;  therefore  it 
is  desirable  to  allow  the  birds  to  develop  more  fully  than  is  usually 
the  case  with  those  sold  at  home. 

To  succeed  in  this  business,  the  special  points  are  to  never  sell 
a  bird  which  would  not  be  good  enough  for  breeding  at  home,  to 
take  the  same  care  in  selection  for  type  and  constitutional  vigour 
as  if  it  was  to  be  used  hy  the  breeder,  and  always  to  ship  in  good 
condition;  the  last-named  is  essential  in  order  that  the  recipient 
may  be  satisfied. 

Eggs  for  Hatching. — Many  poultry-keepers  renew  their  stock 
by  the  purchase  of  a  few  sittings  of  eggs  every  year,  in  place  of, 
or  additional  to,  hatching  such  as  are  laid  by  their  own  birds. 
The  trade  done  is  an  enormous  one,  as  evidenced  by  the  number 
of  advertisements  in  the  poultry  and  general  papers;  some  of 
the  larger  breeding  farms  dispose  of  hundreds  or  even  thousands 
of  sittings  of  eggs  every  season.  At  the  same  time  those  who 
operate  on  a  smaller  scale  derive  a  considerable  part  of  their 
returns  from  this  trade.  It  is  not  too  much  to  state  that  hitherto 
a  considerable  proportion  of  what  are  commonly  called  poultry 
farms  could  not  have  existed  at  all  but  for  the  business  ob- 
tained in  this  way.  That  the  system  has  contributed  greatly  to 
development  of  poultry  husbandry  is  unquestionable,  equally  in 
finding  a  profitable  outlet  for  surplus  eggs  beyond  those  required 
for  hatching  on  the  place  of  origin,  at  very  much  higher  prices 
than  these  would  realize  in  ordinary  markets,  and  that  purchasers 


124  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

are  able  to  obtain  fresh  stock  at  much  lower  rates  than  would 
be  the  case  if  breeding  birds  were  purchased.  As  a  rule  the  price 
of  a  sitting  of  eggs  is  about  the  same  as,  or  even  less  than,  would 
have  to  be  paid  for  a  single  bird,  and  from  such  sitting  six  or 
eight  chickens  may  be  secured.  In  the  case  of  small  poultry- 
keepers  who  are  compelled  to  keep  their  fowls  in  strict  confine- 
ment, the  plan  is  often  adopted  of  keeping  no  male,  and  rearing 
a  batch  of  chicks  annually  from  purchased  eggs,  so  that  the 
virility  of  the  flock  is  well  maintained. 

As  mentioned,  however,  in  Chapter  II.,  there  have  been  many 
complamts  on  the  part  of  both  vendors  and  purchasers,  some- 
times not  without  good  reason.  The  system  lends  itself  to 
trickery  where  there  is  a  disposition  to  such  practices;  further, 
seasons  have  much  to  answer  for  in  this  direction.  It  may  be 
generally  admitted  that  travelled  eggs  do  not  give  the  same 
standard  of  hatchability  as  if  they  are  incubated  on  the  place 
where  produced,  owing  to  their  delicate  mechanism.  Transit 
means  liability  to  shocks  and  rough  treatment,  which  frequently 
cause  rupture  of  the  contents  of  the  egg,  without  any  damage 
to  the  shell;  that  is  especially  the  case  with  eggs  from  highly- 
bred  stock  or  those  kept  within  small  enclosed  yards.  The  trade 
is  one,  however  carefully  conducted,  that  renders  the  seller  liable 
to  many  complaints,  and  I  have  known  cases  where  it  was  entirely 
given  up  for  this  reason.  Customers  are  often  unreasonable; 
they  buy  eggs  and  expect  chickens.  All  that  can  be  promised 
by  the  vendor  is  that  the  same  care  will  be  exercised  as  if  the  eggs 
were  to  be  hatched  by  the  breeder  himself.  He  cannot  be  sure, 
when  he  sets  a  batch  of  eggs,  that  a  good  percentage  of  chicks 
will  make  their  appearance;  therefore,  in  selling  eggs  for  hatch- 
ing, he  transfers  to  his  customer  for  a  monej^  payment  the 
chances,  such  as  they  are.  At  the  same  time  it  is  his  business 
to  see  that  the  buyer  has  a  fair  opportunity  of  obtaining  what  has 
been  paid  for.  In  order  to  afford  a  fair  guarantee,  the  practice 
has  been  adopted  of  replacing  infertile  eggs,  which  is  fair  to  both 
parties.  The  buj^er  has  no  chance  of  a  chicken  unless  the  egg 
is  fertilized;  if  it  contains  a  living  germ  the  responsibility  is,  and 
should  be,  that  of  the  purchaser,  for  non-hatching  is  outside  the 
control  of  the  original  breeder,  and  may  be  due  to  bad  manage- 
ment of  the  bu3^er  or  to  the  hen  under  or  the  incubator  in  which 
they  are  placed.  Fair  and  generous  treatment,  however,  paj^s 
in  the  long-run. 

Production  of  Eggs  for  Hatching. — What  has  been  stated  in 
preceding  paragraphs  with  respect  to  the  trade  in  stock  birds 
applies  also  in  this  case — that  is,  as  to  arrangements  for  breed- 


BREEDING  PLANTS  AND  FARMS  125 

ing.  Anyone  who  takes  up  this  trade  must  be  in  a  position  to 
supply  eggs  for  hatching  at  the  time  they  are  in  demand,  which, 
except  for  special  purposes,  usually  extends  from  February  to 
the  end  of  May.  March  and  April  are  the  chief  period  of  sale. 
To  do  this  needs  prevision ;  it  is  useless  being  too  late.  In  order 
to  meet  the  demand  it  is  customary  to  have  several  pens,  pullets 
in  some  to  meet  the  earlier  and  hens  for  the  later  demand.  On 
a  well-managed  plant  all  the  birds,  even  two  and  three  year  old 
hens,  should  be  in  profit  l)}-  the  first  of  February,  in  which  case 
the  older  birds  may  be  chiefly  depended  upon.  A  great  amount 
of  harm  is  being  done  by  sending  out  eggs  for  hatching  from  and 
day-old  chicks  from  eggs  laid  by  immature  stock,  for  that  tends 
to  enfeeble nient  of  the  progeny. 

One  very  important  point  is  that  the  birds  which  produce  the 
eggs  shall  be  kept  vmder  conditions  that  conduce  to  constitutional 
vigour.  On  range  is  the  most  desirable;  such,  however,  is  not 
always  possible.  Where  enclosed  in  runs,  these  should  l)e  suffi- 
ciently large,  and  by  provision  of  scratching-shed  accommodation 
induce  as  much  exercise  as  possible;  further,  it  is  desirable  not 
to  put  the  hens  in  runs  until  near  the  time  their  eggs  will  be 
required.  What  must  be  secured  is  that  the  eggs  sold  shall  be 
of  the  breed  as  represented;  a  purchaser  who  orders  White 
Leghorns  does  not  want  Orpingtons.  It  is  here  where  a  great 
amount  of  trouble  arises  when  breeding-pens  are  placed  out  on 
farms,  as  is  often  the  case,  for  the  control  is  not  thus  in  the  hands 
of  the  vendor,  and  he  may  have  eggs  sent  to  him  which  are  other 
than  they  are  represented  to  be.  When  the  parties  concerned 
are  reliable,  that  plan  is  to  be  commended,  for  under  such  cir- 
cumstances the  breeding  stock  are  usually  on  range. 

Selection  and  Packing. — I  have  already  explained  that  every 
bird  bred  is  not  fitted  for  reproductive  purposes,  and  that  only 
those  should  be  chosen  for  this  work  which  are  selected  speci- 
mens ;  in  the  same  wa}^  every  egg  laid  is  not  necessarily  suitable 
for  hatching  purposes,  even  when  strongly  fertilized.  More 
information  upon  this  question  is  given  in  Chapter  XV.,  which 
may  be  referred  to.  Those  who  sell  eggs  for  hatching  should 
select  such  as  are  sent  away  in  the  same  manner  as  they  would 
for  incubation  at  home;  nothing  conduces  to  loss  of  confidence 
so  much  as  the  recei\ang  of  a  lot  of  undersized,  misshapen,  or 
weak-shelled  eggs. 

Very  important  is  the  question  of  package.  Frequently  sellers 
of  cheap  eggs  despatch  in  ordinary  grocers'  boxes,  using  hay  or 
even  sawdust  as  packing  material.  If  deep  enough  and  the  eggs 
are  unable  to  move,  these  may  answer  the  purpose,  provided  that 


126  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

the  boxes  are  handled  carefully;  that,  however,  cannot  be  assured, 
and  the  risks  are  considerably  increased.  Boxes  are  always 
liable  to  jars  and  shocks,  and  there  is  no  spring  in  them  to  mini- 
mize the  concussion.  As  an  Irishman  is  reputed  to  have  said, 
it  is  not  the  fall  that  hurts,  but  the  sudden  stop.  Special  egg 
boxes  are  sold  by  appliance-makers,  may  of  which  are  excellent. 
In  some  of  these  corrugated  paper  is  used  between  the  eggs,  and 
felting  above  and  below.  A  very  excellent  form  of  case  is  made 
entirely  of  cardboard,  with  a  section  for  each  egg,  and,  as  the 
package  is  yielding,  it  generally  carries  the  contents  safely. 
The  main  thing  is  to  have  a  cushion,  so  that  if  the  package  falls 
the  force  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  best  way  of  sending 
eggs  that  I  know  is  in  roomy  baskets,  though  this  method  entails 
more  trouble;  it  is,  however,  worth  the  labour.  At  bottom 
should  be  placed  a  layer  of  soft  hay ;  then  each  egg  is  wrapped  in 
hay  and  so  bedded  that  all  are  firm.  Hay  between  the  rows 
and  a  cushion  on  top  will,  when  the  lid  is  tied  down,  make  a 
springy  package  that  will  carry  from  one  end  of  the  country  to 
another  in  perfect  safety  and  yield  the  best  results.  Such  a 
system  may  be  used  for  large  or  small  numbers.  In  cold  weather 
it  is  desirable  to  wrap  each  egg  in  a  piece  of  paper  as  a  protection. 
Where  boxes  are  used,  these  should,  for  obvious  reasons,  never 
be  nailed  down.  Whatever  the  package,  it  should  be  labelled 
boldly  "  Eggs  for  Hatching,"  which  usually  commands  better 
treatment  en  route.  Experience  has  shown  that  it  is  better  to 
forward  such  eggs  by  rail,  and  not  by  parcels  post. 

So  far  as  prices  are  concerned,  these  vary  in  accordance  with 
the  value  of  the  stock,  popularity  of  a  breed,  and  class  of  buyers, 
as  well  as  season  when  sold  and  the  number  bought. 

Day-Old  Chicks. — This  business  has  assumed  within  the  last 
few  years  considerable  dimensions,  and  is  capable  of  great  de- 
velopments in  the  future,  provided  that  those  who  undertake  it 
do  justice  both  to  themselves  and  their  customers.  Breeding 
from  immature  and  enfeebled  stock,  forced  to  secure  early  laying 
or  kept  under  bad  conditions,  ought  to  be  strenuously  avoided. 
The  prime  necessity  is  not  alone  to  secure  hatchability  of  eggs, 
but  that  the  chickens  shall  be  vigorous.  What  may  be  termed 
a  hatchery  can  be  set  up  an3^where,  if  the  place  is  suitable; 
that  is  not,  however,  the  prime  question,  but  whence  eggs  are 
obtainable.  Some  of  the  most  successful  businesses  in  this 
direction  are  upon  farms  where  land  is  cheap  and  the  stock 
birds  have  free  range ;  those  conditions  afford  the  greatest  oppor- 
tunities of  success,  as  the  chicks  are  hatched  with  a  great  re- 
serve of  natural  strength.     These  supply  mainly,  if  not  entirely, 


BREEDING  PLANTS  AND  FARMS  127 

the  eggs  required.  To  do  that  a  large  stock  must  be  kept, 
because  the  eggs  are  useless  for  this  purpose  if  not  produced 
between  January  and  May.  On  one  of  these  farms  with  which 
I  am  acquainted  30,000  chicks  are  sold  annually,  but  on  another 
as  many  as  80,000  have  been  hatched  in  a  single  season.  To 
obtain  such  numbers  the  eggs  available  must  be  nearly  double 
those  stated ;  thus,  to  have  enough  eggo  to  run  the  former  estab- 
lishment 600  to  1,000  hens  must  be  available,  according  to  their 
prolificacy.  A  considerable  number  of  establishments  have 
sprung  up  for  which  all  eggs  are  j)urchased.  If  organization  of 
suppUes  is  upon  a  reliable  and  adequate  scale,  obtaining  eggs 
alone  from  farmers  who  can  be  trusted  and  who  keep  their  birds 
on  range,  these  can  also  be  conducted  successfully,  even  though 
there  are  greater  risks  and  losses  from  use  of  travelled  eggs  than 
if  produced  by  hens  on  the  spot;  such  is,  however,  better  than 
keeping  hens  in  close  runs,  as  is  too  often  the  case. 

Plant  for  Day-Old  Chicks. — Many  years  ago  in  the  Birmingham 
district  I  came  across  a  custom  of  selling  hens  with  their  broods, 
in  which  direction  a  considerable  trade  was  done  from  the  first  of 
May  onwards.  In  this  manner  breeders  found  a  market  for  their 
older  hens.  Such  a  system,  however,  has  its  limitations,  as  it  is 
entirely  dependent  upon  the  supply  of  broody  hens.  It  is  the 
successful  operation  of  incubators  that  has  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity for  development  of  the  trade,  which  has  grown  so  largely, 
of  selling  chicks  when  a  day  old;  in  fact,  there  is  no  other  way 
of  conducting  such  an  enterj)rise,  equally  as  to  cost  of  production 
and  enabling  chicks  to  be  hatched  early  enough  and  continuously 
during  the  season  in  order  to  meet  the  demand.  Apart,  there- 
fore, from  what  may  be  termed  the  breeding  plant,  or  organiza- 
tion for  adequate  suppty  of  the  right  class  of  eggs,  there  must 
be  incubator  capacity  correlative  to  the  trade  to  be  done.  Par- 
ticulars of  such  equipment  are  given  in  Chapter  XV.  It  is 
enough  for  the  present  purpose  to  state  that,  as  the  main  period 
of  demand  extends  from  February  to  June,  the  maximum  season 
being  March,  April,  and  the  earlier  half  of  May,  provision  must 
be  made  accordingly.  That  means,  so  far  as  chickens  are  con- 
cerned, all  the  work  is  concentrated  within  twenty  weeks,  so 
that,  practicall}'  speaking,  each  incubator,  allowing  for  three  or 
four  days'  interval  between  hatching,  may  be  operated  five  times 
within  a  season.  In  the  case  of  ducklings,  which  take  a  week 
longer,  we  can  only  reckon  on  four  hatches.  With  regard  to 
the  former,  as  it  is  found  that,  roughly  speaking  and  allowing 
for  infertile  eggs,  death  in  shell,  accidents,  and  malformed 
chickens,  two  eggs  will  be  required  for  every  liveable  chick  pro- 


128  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

duced,  it  Avill  be  seen  that  the  incubator  capacity  must  be  400 
eggs  for  every  1,000  chickens  hatched — that  is,  provided  the 
machines  are  used  continuous!}^  during  the  months  named. 
Thus,  if  5,000,  chicks  are  sold  in  one  year,  incubators  must  be 
available  holding  at  one  time  2,000  eggs,  and  so  on.  In  the  case 
of  ducklings,  which  trade  has  been  touched  to  a  very  limited 
extent  and  is  capable  of  great  development,  the  incubator 
c  apacity  would  need  to  be  increased  b^^  25  per  cent. ;  for  this 
trade,  therefore,  the  equipment  for  hatching  must  be  relative  to 
the  eggs  to  be  incubated  and  the  chickens  produced. 

Cost  of  Producing  Day-Old  Chicks. — The  actual  cost  involved 
in  production  of  chickens  can  to  some  extent  be  approximated. 
So  far  as  eggs  are  concerned,  that  will  depend  upon  many  factors, 
inclusive  of  the  fecundity  of  hens  themselves.  Fortunatel3^  the 
period  of  the  j'ear  for  this  trade  is  when  market  eggs  are  at 
their  minimum  of  price,  although  even  for  that  purpose  in 
February  the  values  are  greater  than  in  March  and  in  April. 
Where  stock  birds  are  kept  w^hich  have  been  carefully  selected, 
and  to  which  special  attention  is  given,  the  eggs  produced  by 
them  are  worth  more  than  those  from  ordinary  fowls  at  free 
range  upon  farms;  that  fact  has,  therefore,  to  be  taken  into 
consideration.  A  further  point  is  whether  such  eggs  can  be  sold  for 
hatching  purposes  and  at  what  prices.  For  instance,  if  a  breeder 
has  a  demand  for  eggs  at,  say,  5s.  per  dozen,  and  he  decides  instead 
to  hatch  and  sell  the  chicks  produced,  he  would  naturally  expect 
a  higher  return  than  if  the  eggs  were  from  ordinary  stock.  Unless 
such  advanced  price  is  obtainable  he  will  be  a  loser,  apart  from 
the  greater  risks  and  labour  involved,  and  that  a  much  larger 
capital  expenditure  is  required  for  equipment  of  a  hatchery  than 
on  a  breeding  farm  whence  eggs  are  sold  for  hatching. 

So  far  as  what  may  be  termed  establishment  expenses  are 
concerned,  where  operations  are  conducted  on  a  fairly  large 
scale,  my  calculation  is  that  the  actual  cost,  apart  from  the 
eggs,  works  out  at  not  less  than  Is.  6d.  per  dozen  chicks;  this 
allows  for  labour,  assuming  that  it  is  skilled  and  fully  employed, 
interest  on  capital,  depreciation  of  plant,  cost  of  running  machines 
and  boxes  in  which  the  chicks  when  hatched  are  despatched. 
On  the  College  Poultry  Farm,  Theale,  we  found  that  the  expense 
of  oil  to  run  incubators  was  02 Id.  per  chick  hatched,  which  is 
2|d.  per  dozen.  The  other  items  are  variable,  more  especially 
labour.  For  example,  one  man  can  comfortably  manage  the 
hatching,  packing,  and  despatch,  of  a  thousand  chicks  per  week. 
If  he  only  turned  out  half  that  number,  and  did  nothing  else,  the 
cost  of  his  labour  pro  rata  would  be  doubled. 


BREEDING  PLANTS  AND  FARMS 


129 


What  we  have  now  to  take  into  consideration  is  the  egg  cost 
or  egg  values.  On  the  basis  of  two  eggs  to  one  chicken,  it  will 
be  seen  that  day-old  chicks  at  hatching  cost  as  follows : 


Egg  Values. 

Egg  Cost. 

General  Cost. 

Total  Cost. 

Eggs  at  Id.  each 

;;   r:    ::    :: 

„       3d.     „ 

s.     d. 

2  0 

3  0 

4  0 
6    0 

s.    d. 
1      () 
1      fi 
1      6 
1      G 

s.     d. 

3  6  per  dozen 

4  0 

5  0 
7     T) 

With  eggs  of  higher  values  the  prime  cost  will  be  correspond- 
ingly greater;  therefore,  for  chicks  of  ordinary  stock  5s.  to  6s. 
per  dozen,  and  from  more  carefully  selected  birds  7s.  6d.  to  15s. 
per  dozen,  are,  considering  the  risks,  reasonable  rates  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  actual  chicks  are  delivered.  Where  the  quantities 
purchased  are  large,  reductions  may  be  made,  but  the  vendor 
must  have  a  living  profit;  also,  early  chicks  are  more  expensive  to 
produce  than  those  sold  later. 

Chick  Boxes. — In  order  that  the  birds  shall  be  able  to  bear 
the  journej^  it  is  essential  that  they  be 
bred  from  vigorous  stock.     Further,  some 
breeds  stand  transit  better  than 
do  others  ;  that,  however,  will  be 
learnt  by  experience.     The  ques- 
tion is,  when  the  chickens  should 
be  delivered.     The  result  of  long 
experience  has  shown  that  when 
they  are  ijroperly  dried,  and  have 
recovered  from  the  strain  of  hatch- 
ing, which  will  be  in  about  twenty- 
four   hours    after  emerg- 
ence from  the  shell,  is  the 
best  time  to  send   them 
away.      They  should   be 
packed   in   good  wooden 
or  cardboard  boxes;  these 
need  not  be  large,  as  for 
a  dozen  chickens   a  box 
about  14  by  9  inches  is 
quite  spacious  enough ;  for 
two  dozen  the  box  may 

be  15  inches  square.  Not  more  than  two  dozen  should  be 
sent  in  a  box  unless  divided.     The  box  should  have  9  inches 

9 


Fio.  6. — Day-Old  Chick  Boxes. 


130  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

of  head  room,  and  be  plentifully  supplied  with  ventilation 
holes  above  the  heads  of  the  chickens.  A  piece  of  fine 
sacking  or  flannel  or  calico  should  be  made  a  cover,  on  which 
some  loose  hay  can  be  placed,  above  which  is  a  wooden  lid. 
The  inside  should  be  well  littered  out  with  cut  chaff,  and  to 
provide  the  chickens  with  food,  if  the  journey  is  a  long  one,  in 
the  cut  chaff  there  should  be  scattered  some  canary-seed,  dari, 
and  hemp-seed.  The  chicks  will  scratch  about  for  it  if  the  place 
is  fairly  light,  and  thus  keep  themselves  warm,  as  well  as  obtain 
the  necessary  support.  Two  or  three  bunches  of  greenstuff, 
such  as  lettuce  or  young  cabbage,  should  be  suspended  inside 
the  box,  if  the  journey  is  a  very  long  one,  as  the  chickens 
will  eat  this  very  readily.  Chickens  so  packed,  even  when 
despatched  at  the  early  age  named,  have  been  known  to  travel 
hundreds  of  miles  without  loss.  What  is  necessary,  however, 
is  to  consider  the  time  of  year.  We  should  deprecate  the 
sending  of  young  chickens  in  this  way  during  very  severe  frosts, 
especially  if  they  had  to  make  a  cross-country  journey  where 
there  would  be  danger  of  exposure  at  railway-stations.  The 
boxes  should  be  well  made,  and  if  the  weather  is  unfavour- 
able a  piece  of  sacking  nailed  on  the  outside  would  add  con- 
siderably to  the  warmth  within.  The  box  should  be  well  labelled, 
and  have  on  top:  "Live  Chickens.  This  Side  Up.  With  Care." 
A  cord  across  the  top  for  a  handle  will  facilitate  moving  and 
insure  safety. 

Weaned  Chickens. — A  demand  has  arisen  to  some  extent  for 
chickens  when  they  leave  the  brooders,  though  it  has  not  de- 
veloped so  rapidly  as  the  trade  in  day-old  chickens,  perhaps 
because  it  has  not  been  pushed  to  the  same  extent.  I  cannot 
but  think  that  there  are  great  possibilities  in  this  trade,  and  that 
if  put  on  a  sure  basis  it  would  grow  to  very  large  dimensions. 
The  advantages  to  the  purchaser  would  be  very  great,  in  that 
he  would  receive  birds  the  vigour  and  virility  of  which  had  been 
proved,  and,  further,  that  he  would  buy  in  accordance  with  the 
sex  as  well  as  the  age.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  the  sex  of  day- 
olds,  biit  at  six  to  eight  weeks,  the  time  when  birds  would  be  sold, 
this  would  be  discernible.  So  far  as  the  producer  is  concerned, 
such  an  arrangement  would  add  to  the  cost  of  his  equipment  and 
labour,  as  he  would  require  land  for  rearing,  brooders,  etc.,  but 
that  should  be  compensated  by  the  higher  price  obtainable, 
which,  to  be  profitable,  must  be  50  to  75  per  cent,  above  the 
day-old  price,  in  some  cases  more.  He  would  retain  the  cockerels, 
for  customers  would  usually  want  pullets,  sell  these  as  milk 
chickens,  or  feed  and  fatten  them  off. 


BREEDING  PLANTS  AND  FARMS  131 

Pupils. — It  is  frequently  said  that  many  poultry  farms  exist  on 
the  fees  of  pupils  rather  than  the  sale  of  what  may  be  produced 
upon  the  place.  That  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  justification 
for  thiss  tatement  is  unquestionable.  The  number  of  advertise- 
ments for  pupils  is  surprising,  some  of  which  have  little  to 
offer  either  in  the  shape  of  theoretical  teaching  or  practical  ex- 
perience. Fortunately,  as  a  rule  these  plants  are  as  good  as 
many  of  those  who  go  to  them  can  appreciate ;  it  is  merely  a  fill-up 
in  their  useless  lives.  We  do  not  want  decadents,  who  have  tried 
everything  else  and  failed,  to  turn  to  poultry  as  a  last  resort; 
should  they  do  so,  it  is  better  their  time  be  spent  where  they 
can  do  the  least  harm.  Where  the  farm,  whatever  the  branch 
undertaken,  is  well  managed,  well  equipped,  and  on  an  adequate 
scale,  there  is  something  to  learn,  and  the  earnest  student  will 
find  the  time  spent  there  of  the  greatest  value,  especially  if 
operations  are  on  a  more  extensive  scale  than  is  general,  for  that 
gives  breadth  of  outlook  and  experience.  Not  alone  are  the  fees 
a  gain  to  the  owner  of  the  farm,  but  the  labour  thus  secured 
reduces  the  cost  of  that  item,  though  not  to  the  extent  generally 
supposed,  for  a  pupil  requires  very  careful  supervision  at  the  first ; 
one  act  of  carelessness  may  involve  greater  loss  than  his  fees  will 
pay  in  a  twelve-month . 


CHAPTER  X 

INTENSIVE  AND  SEMI-INTENSIVE  POULTRY 
HUSBANDRY 

What  are  known  as  intensive  methods  of  poultry-keeping 
demand  consideration,  from  the  fact  that  these  are  being- 
heralded  as  novel,  and  that  many  people  are  led  to  adopt  a  system 
which  is  yet  in  the  experimental  stage — that  is,  upon  a  com- 
mercial scale — the  ultimate  form  of  which,  even  if  it  should  prove 
successful,  has  not  been  determined.  That  from  all  the  efforts 
which  are  being  pu^t  forth  some  good  will  result,  I  cannot  doubt. 
Before  we  arrive  at  that  jaoint  experience  of  a  costly  kind  will 
have  to  be  accumulated,  and  much  that  is  now  set  forth  with 
unlimited  assurance  and  all  smcerity  will  be  revised  again  and  3^et 
again.  Many  plans  which  are  now  believed  to  be  perfect  will 
be  abandoned.  What  have  to  be  learnt  with  respect  to  every 
phase  of  poultry  husbandry  are  the  limitations,  too  often  ignored, 
and  the  theories  built  upon  inadequate  knowledge  and  experience. 
One  important  fact  is  apparently  forgotten  —  namely,  that 
intensive  methods  are  by  no  means  new,  but  have  been  adopted 
by  small  poultry -keepers  for  many  years.  Further,  these  differ 
in  an  essential  factor  from  such  as  are  described  hi  Chapter  VIII., 
under  the  head  of  Allotments.  In  the  latter  cultivation  of  the 
land  is  an  integral  part  of  the  scheme  of  work,  whereas  in  the 
more  intensive  operations  that  does  not  enter  at  all;  it  is  essen- 
tial, therefore,  that  this  fact  be  recognized  at  the  outset. 

Meaning  of  Terms. — It  is  desirable  at  this  stage  to  indicate  the 
true  meaning  of  the  terms  which  are  employed  in  this  connection 
— namely,  intensive  and  semi-intensive — ^for  these  are  frequently 
employed  incorrectly.  Commonly  the  word  used  refers  to  in- 
crease of  degree — the  raising  of  whatever  is  indicated  to  a  higher 
pitch.  As  applied  to  production  it  means  enhanced  development 
within  any  given  environment;  therefore,  in  all  cultivation  and 
stock  breeding,  there  must  be  intensification,  as  compared  with 
132 


INTENSIVE  AND  SEMI-INTENSIVE  METHODS     133 

what  are  termed  natural  methods,  otherwise  the  world's  popula- 
tion could  not  be  provided  for.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  all  do- 
mestication is  necessarily  intensive;  to  that  extent  modern 
methods  of  poultry  husbandry,  even  upon  farms,  might  be  so 
designated. 

The  terms  used,  however,  do  not  apply  to  poultry-keeping 
upon  ordinary  farms,  small  holdings,  allotments,  or  breeding 
plants,  but  refer  to  conditions  under  which  poultry  are  kept 
where  certain  of  the  elemental  natural  factors  are  absent  alto- 
gether or  reduced  almost  to  vanishing-point,  with  a  view  of  en- 
hancing productiveness  of  eggs  or  flesh.  Nearly  all  fancy  poultry- 
breeding  is  more  or  less  intensive;  in  that  case,  however,  the 
number  of  birds  kept  on  a  given  space  or  bred  is  usualty  smaller, 
and  profit  depends  upon  the  less  economic  factors,  consequently 
the  risks  are  minimized.  Where  success  depends  upon  the  rela- 
tive degree  of  marketable  products,  it  is  the  volume  that  counts 
in  the  main ;  and  whether  the  produce  be  vegetables  or  hens,  the 
tendency  is  to  a  much  increased  quantity  of  plants  or  birds 
on  a  given  space.  With  these  facts  in  mind  I  attempt  to 
explain  the  accepted  meanings  of  the  two  terms  given  above, 
premising  that  intensification  in  cultivation  can  alone  be  attained 
by  regular  replacement  in  the  soil  of  the  elements  upon  which 
plants  live  and  grow,  and  that  so  far  as  poultry  are  concerned 
the  manurial  elements  must  be  removed  before  these  exert  their 
influence.  In  the  latter  it  is  an  application  of  what  is  known  as 
the  "  soiling  system,"  as  in  the  case  of  cattle. 

The  intensive  method  of  poultry  husbandry  is  where  the 
fowls  are  kept  either  entirely  in  houses  or  within  very  small 
enclosures,  the  number  in  either  case  being  relatively  large  to 
the  ground  occupied.  It  is  the  last-named  which  determines  the 
degree  of  intensification,  not  whether  there  be  six  or  six  hundred 
under  one  roof. 

In  semi -intensive  methods  we  find  an  attempt  to  combine 
what  has  been  stated  above  with  a  moderate  amount  of  run. 
Under  such  conditions  the  birds  are  usually  in  large  flocks,  for 
each  of  which  is  provided  an  extensive  scratching-shed  house, 
to  which  is  attached  an  outside  run  or  runs.  As  the  fowls  are  fed 
entirely  under  cover,  and  mainly  in  litter,  a  considerable  part  of 
the  manure  produced  by  them  is  capable  of  removal,  and  the 
quantity  falling  upon  the  ground  is  minimized  to  that  extent. 
The  runs  provide  an  amount  of  exercise  beyond  what  is  obtain- 
able when  the  hens  are  scratching  among  the  litter. 

"  Bird-Cage  "  Methods. — I'he  small  urban  or  suburban  poultry- 
keeper  has  no  choice  whatever.     His  conditions  are  such  that  he 


134  POUIiTRY  HUSBANDRY 

must  enclose  the  fowls  within  small  areas,  and  by  expenditure 
of  labour,  by  adoption  of  methods  which  would  not  be  profitable 
on  a  commercial  basis,  and  by  extreme  care  in  feeding,  reduce 
the  effects  which  would  otherwise  accrue.  It  is  all  a  question 
of  hygiene,  sanitation,  and  feeding.  One  of  the  most  striking 
examples  I  have  met  with  was  more  than  twenty  years  ago,  in 
an  eastern  district  of  London,  where  a  man,  employed  at  the  great 
gasworks,  had  for  years  kept  half  a  dozen  hens  on  a  small  space 
of  6  by  3J  feet  of  ground,  from  which  he  obtained  an  average  of 
about  a  thousand  eggs  per  annum.  The  floor  of  the  run  was 
deeply  embedded  with  sand,  into  which  grain  was  dug  daily  to 
give  exercise,  and  green  food  was  supi^lied  as  far  as  available. 
The  differences  between  this  and  the  system  now  advocated 
were  that  a  small  house  was  used  at  one  end,  that  the  house  was 
loftier  than  those  now  in  use  (at  least  4  feet  high),  and  that  the 
sides  of  the  run  were  wire-netted,  although  there  was  a  cover 
over  all.  In  the  case  referred  to,  experience  had  proved  that 
when  more  hens  were  kept  than  the  half-dozen  stated  the  total 
number  of  eggs  produced  were  fewer.  No  chickens  were  bred, 
as  pullets  were  purchased  for  replacement  as  required. 

Whatever  views  may  be  held  as  to  the  economic  possibilities 
of  intensive  methods  as  applied  to  poultry  hiisbandrj^ — that  is, 
in  the  more  extreme  forms — it  is  unquestionable  that  important 
factors  not  fully  realized  in  other  directions  have  been  brought 
prominently  forward.  Such  is  a  considerable  gain.  Without 
these  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  system  would  have 
failed  disastrously.  These  factors  are — (1)  Scrupulous  cleanli- 
ness. Neglect  on  that  score  would  be  fatal.  (2)  Using  loose 
sand  or  dry  earth  as  a  floor  in  the  houses,  both  for  the  prevention 
of  disease  from  manurial  action  and  as  a  means  of  giving  exercise 
to  the  inmates,  thus  keeping  down  the  tendency  to  internal  body 
fat.  Making  the  birds  work  for  their  food  is  ever  a  benefit  to 
them,    otherwise    they    become    indolent    and    non-productive. 

(3)  The  keeping  of  dry  bran  in  a  hopper  always  before  the  birds 
would  appear,  from  such  experience  as  we  possess,  to  be  highly 
advantageous.  The  prophylactic  action  of  bran,  as  distinct 
from  its  food  value — which  latter  is  probably  small  so  long  as 
it  is  in  a  dry  state — has  not  been  fully  determined;  it  is  a 
striking  fact  that  fowls  will  consume  considerable  quantities, 
and  we  may  therefore  assume  that  instinct  is  a  safe  guide  in  this 
direction, as  the  palatability  of  the  product  is  by  no  means  high. 

(4)  'J  he  use  of  sprouted  oats,  though  that  is  not  new,  ])ioviding 
elements  which  are  necessary  to  the  physical  health  in  a  form 
which  is  attractive  and  highly  appreciated.     It  is  a  moot  question 


INTENSIVE  AND  SEMI-INTENSIVE  METHODS       135 

whether  other  green  food  would  not  be  equally  beneficial,  but 
that,  again,  is  a  fit  subject  for  experiment  and  research.  One 
advantage  is  that  oats  can  be  sprouted  anywhere,  at  any  season 
of  the  3'ear,  whereas  ordinary  greenstuff  is  scarce  during  the 
winter,  and  many  town  poultry-keepers  have  no  opportunities 
of  growing  it,  whereas  they  can  always  sprout  oats.  Whilst  no 
one  of  these  factors  is  absolutely  original,  the  combination  is 
novel,  and  it  is  by  way  of  such  combinations  that  progress  is 
made. 

Intensive  Houses. — I  do  not  propose  to  devote  more  than  a 
moderate  amount  of  space  to  describing  the  houses  which  are 


Fig.  7. — "City"  Intensive  House. 


being  largely  used  under  this  S3^stem,  if  such  it  can  be  termed, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  these  have  changed  considerably 
within  the  last  two  or  three  years,  and  probably  other  alterations 
will  be  made  in  the  near  future.  Of  these  are  two  types:  First, 
the  single  house,  which  is  usually  6  feet  long  by  3  feet  6  inches 
deep,  and  3  feet  to  the  eaves,  with  a  flat  or  gabled  roof,  the  front 
half  of  which  forms  a  hinged  cover  that  can  be  turned  back  to  give 
access  to  the  interior.  The  front  is  formed  of  wire  netting,  and 
may  be  shuttered.  Inside  are  removable  perches  and  egg  boxes. 
There  is  no  floor,  and  the  earth  below  is  thickly  covered  with 


136  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

sand  or  dry  earth,  in  which  the  grain  is  buried,  so  that  the  in- 
mates have  to  work  for  all  they  obtain.  In  such  a  coop  six  hens 
are  usually  kept.  Second  is  the  double-decker  house,  in  which, 
by  addition  of  an  upper  story,  an  equal  number  of  birds  are 
again  provided  for.  Where  that  plan  is  adopted,  the  lower  tier 
has  a  flat  top  formed  by  the  floor  of  the  upper  compartment,  on 
which  latter  sand  or  earth  or  litter  gives  the  scratching  material, 
in  both  instances  kept  in  by  strips  of  wood  along  the  front. 
Even  four-storied  "  poultry  flats  "  are  now  in  use.  It  will  be 
evident,  therefore,  that  the  amount  of  actual  floor  space  does 
not  exceed  2  square  feet  per  inmate,  so  that  the  conditions  are 
abnormal  in  the  extreme.  Everything  depends  upon  careful 
management  and  feeding,  otherwise  there  would  sjoeedily  result 
grossness  of  body  and  non-productiveness,  as  well  as  a  rapid 
multiplication  of  parasitic  life  and  loss  of  %arility.  Under  the 
first  of  the  above  methods  it  is  possible,  where  space  permits,  to 
remove  the  coops  frequently  on  to  fresh  ground.  That,  however, 
does  not  afford  the  opportunity  of  exercise  to  the  same  extent  as 
where  the  floor  is  loose  and  friable. 

The  Commercial  Aspect. — Whilst  it  may  be  freely  admitted 
that  such  a  system  as  described  above  may  be  successfully 
applied  on  "  city  "  or  "  backyard  "  lots,  where  labour  does  not 
count,  as  the  operations  are  on  a  small  scale,  it  is  a  totally'  different 
j)roposition  if  attempted  as  a  commercial  enterprise — that  is,  a 
mode  of  making  a  living  profit.  In  the  former  we  may  expect 
a  moderate  addition  to  the  food  production  of  the  country,  just 
as  it  is  desirable  to  encourage  cultivation  of  vegetables  in  urban 
and  suburban  gardens.  It  is  the  endeavour  to  develop  as  busi- 
ness enterprises  larger  intensive  plants  which  deserves  and 
demands  consideration.  By  use  of  such  houses  or  coops  it  is 
possible  to  crowd  more  than  a  thousand  birds  in  single  houses, 
or  fifteen  hundred  birds  in  double-deckers,  allowing  wider  avenues 
between,  on  a  single  acre  of  land.  That  is  what  appeals  to  the 
many.  What  has  to  be  taken  into  consideration  is  the  capital 
expenditure  and  labour  involved.  At  5s.  per  bird  for  housing 
alone,  which  is  not  excessive,  the  single  houses  would  cost  at 
least  £250  per  acre,  and  the  double-tiered  coops  £375  per  acre, 
apart  from  other  appliances  or  for  the  means  of  rearing.  That, 
however,  is  the  least  part  of  it.  What  has  to  be  taken  into 
account  is  the  labour  involved.  To  attend  to  the  cleaning,  which 
must  not  be  perfunctory,  the  burying  of  grain,  and  feeding,  in 
respect  of  176  houses  is  a  task  of  no  small  magnitude.  Even 
though,  as  may  be  admitted,  the  pro  rata  egg  production  is  greater 
than  would  be  the  case  under  ordinary  methods,  it  may  be 


INTENSIVE  AND  SEMI-INTENSIVE  METHODS      137 

doubted  whether  such  increase,  apart  from  the  considerations 
enumerated  below,  would  compensate  adequately  for  the  greater 
cost  involved. 

Here,  again,  I  do  not  attempt  a  full  description  of  plants  in 
operation,  giving,  however,  illustrations,  for  the  reason  that  the 
system  is  commercial^  still  in  the  experimental  stage.  That 
there  will  be  many  "  has  beens,"  to  use  the  expression  of  an 
American,  may  be  anticipated.  One  of  the  latest  suggestions  is 
to  house  the  birds  in  canvas -walled  sheds. 

Large  Intensive  Houses. — For  reasons  which  have  been  stated 
in  the  previous  paragraphs,  it  is  evident  that  the  qviestion  of 
labour  is  a  prime  factor  where  operations  are  on  a  large  scale. 
Therefore,  the  natural  tendency  has  been  for  those  who  have 
taken  up  intensive  poultry-keeping  on  industrial  lines  to  adopt 
the  plan  of  large  houses  and  flocks  rather  than  a  multiplication 
of  the  six-unit  coops  already  described.  My  opinion  is  that  if 
intensive  methods  are  to  succeed,  which  has  yet  to  be  proved, 
that  will  not  be  arrived  at  by  the  "  bird-cage  "'  system,  save 
when  operated  on  a  very  small  scale.  These  large  ho  vises  have 
been  used  for  many  years,  usually  with  compartments,  to  each  of 
which  was  attached  a  yard  or  run.  The  later  form  has  the  run, 
but  is  not  subdivided  to  the  same  extent.  Apart  from  other 
considerations,  the  main  difficulty  which  has  hitherto  been 
experienced  is  in  the  lack  of  removability  of  these  big  buildings, 
and  the  impossibilit}'  of  gi^'ing  that  fresh  ground  which  up  to 
the  present  has  been  essential  to  permanent  success.  That  may 
be  accompHshed  by  cultivation  of  the  soil  where  the  number  of 
birds  to  the  acre  is  comparatively  small ;  but  with  a  large  increase 
pro  rata,  necessary  if  the  system  is  to  be  profitable  on  industrial 
lines,  no  method  with  which  I  am  acquainted  is  known  that 
enables  this  to  be  accomplished.  Therefore,  in  process  of  time 
the  ground  becomes  "  fowl  sick,"  and  can  only  be  restored  to  a 
healthful  and  sanitary  condition  by  cultivation  for  at  least  three 
jears,  during  which  season  of  rest  no  animal  is  kept  thereon. 
That  means  during  the  period  named  the  house  would  be  un- 
occupied, which  is  a  distinct  loss  of  earning  power.  No  matter 
what  methods  may  be  adopted,  such  as  double  yards,  plus 
cultivation,  up  to  the  present  time  nothing  has  been  discovered 
which  will  restore  to  the  land  the  elements  lost  by  overstocking, 
save  absolute  and  entire  removal  of  animals  from  it.  Such  has 
proved  to  be  the  case  with  larger  stock,  and  the  same  principles 
apply  in  respect  to  poultry.  It  is  upon  this  aspect  of  the  problem 
that  attention  must  be  directed,  in  addition  to  the  influence  upon 
the  birds  themselves,  as  dealt  with  below. 


138  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Intensive  and  Semi-Intensive. — Here,  again,  we  have  two  lines 
of  oiDcration.  In  the  first  of  these  the  hens  are  kept  entirel}^  in 
the  house  provided,  and  are  not  allowed  out  on  open  ground  at 
all.  Under  such  conditions  the  area  per  inmate  must  necessarily 
be  adequate,  so  as  to  give  space  for  exercise,  which  is  provided 
b}^  deep  litter  wherein  the  grain  is  buried.  An  ultra-development 
of  this  system  is  by  division  of  these  houses  so  that  the  individual 
flocks  are  smaller,  and  in  some  instances  by  erecting  them  in 
two  stories,  which  doubles  the  capacity.  The  last-named  is 
practically  the  same  as  the  double-decker  small  houses  already 
referred  to,  but  concentrated  in  one  long-range  building.  In 
the  second  there  is  additional  to  the  house  an  outside  run,  so 
that  the  birds  can  go  out  into  the  open  whenever  they  like, 
although  observations  have  shown  that  they  spend  most  of  the 
time  under  cover,  probably  from  the  fact  that  the  soil  is  speedily 
exhausted  of  the  elements  which  the  fowls  desire,  and  that  food 
is  supplied  to  them  within  the  buildings.  Addition  of  the  run  is 
of  great  value,  even  though  it  is  small  compared  with  the  number 
of  birds  kept  thereon,  It,  however,  may  in  process  of  time  be 
an  ultimate  causation  of  disease  due  to  manurial  influences. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  system  here  set  forth  is 
entirely  antagonistic  to  the  extensive  method,  whether  applied 
by  portable  or  colony  houses.  In  these  latter  cultivation  bulks 
largely,  as  the  poultry  must  only  be  kept  to  the  extent  the  land 
will  bear  in  relation  to  its  capacity  for  utilization  of  the  manure 
produced.  As  a  consequence,  profitable  cropping  of  the  land 
is  an  integral  part  of  the  scheme  of  operations  upon  which  success 
will  largely  depend,  although  the  fowls  may  contribute  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  returns.  On  the  other  hand,  intensive  or 
semi-intensive  methods  depend  entirely  upon  the  poultry,  as 
cultivation  is  not  undertaken  at  all  in  the  former,  and  in  the 
latter  is  merely  a  sanitarj^  precaution.  To  a  considerable  degi'ee 
the  manure  is  produced  within  the  house,  and  can  be  removed, 
to  which  extent  its  influence  is  minimized.  Frequently,  how- 
ever, that  means  its  value  is  not  realized.  All  the  eggs  are  here 
in  one  basket.  Unless  the  fowls  can  bear  the  entire  charges  for 
food,  labour,  interest  on  equipment,  rent,  etc.,  and  leave  a 
margin,  the  enterprise  must  fail.  That  is  the  proof  of  its  economic 
value. 

Unit  of  Flocks. — As  a  question  of  economics,  mainly  in  the 
direction  of  houses  and  labour,  with  larger  flocks  the  cost  is 
relatively  smalle}-.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  frequently 
demonstrated  that  the  smaller  the  number  of  birds  the  greater 
is  the  average  egg  production.     That,  in  my  judgment,  explains 


INTENSIVE  AND  SEMI-INTENSIVE  METHODS      141 

in  part  the  high  averages  obtained  in  laying  competitions  and  by 
"  backyarders,"  where  the  unit  is  usually  four  or  half  a  dozen, 
which  records  are  seldom  equalled  by  larger  flocks.  Unfor- 
tunately, such  a  system  is  not  economic.  The  expense  involved 
for  equipment  and  labour  in,  say,  the  six  unit  adopted  at  laying 
competitions  is  much  greater  than  any  increase  of  production 
will  compensate.  What  we  have  to  discover  is  the  size  of  flock 
in  which  productiveness  and  cost  will  bear  a  due  relationship, 
leaving  a  margin  of  recompense  as  profit  to  the  owner.  Generally 
speaking,  under  extensive  or  colony  methods  this  is  found  to  be, 
for  egg  production,  twenty-five  birds  in  each  house,  which  has  the 
added  advantage  that  houses  of  the  capacity  named  are  portable 
to  an  extent  that  larger  buildings  could  not  be.  For  breeding- 
pens  the  number  may  be  half.  In  such  cases,  however,  returns 
are  measured  by  the  chickens  obtained,  and  these  can  bear  the 
added  cost  by  reason  of  greater  value. 

So  far  as  the  systems  under  notice  are  concerned,  there  is 
great  divergence  of  opinion.  At  one  extreme  is  the  six  unit,  as 
adopted  by  "  bird-cage  "  advocates.  At  the  other  we  find  as 
many  as  500  or  even  1,000  hens  in  one  flock.  It  is  sugges- 
tive that  Mr.  Randolph  Meech,  who  is  the  great  advocate 
of  intensification  in  this  country,  and  founder  of  the  Intensive 
Poultry  League,  states  in  his  publication  "Eggs":  "I  have 
advocated  from  the  first  that  100  should  be  the  maximum 
number  to  be  kept  in  one  single  house,  and  I  repeat  again  there 
is  not  a  solitary  case  in  England  where  a  large  flock  has  ever 
been  run  successfully."  My  own  view  is  that  the  main  reason 
why  smaller  flocks  are  more  productive  is  due  to  atmospheric 
influences — that  is,  when  the  birds  are  at  roost.  To  some  extent 
the  introduction  of  open-fronted  houses  has  enabled  the  flocks  to 
be  enlarged,  but  only  to  a  limited  degree.  Massing  of  fowls 
means  that  the  majority  are  unable  to  obtain  oxygen  in  its 
pure  state. 

The  Rancocas  Plant. — An  extreme  example  of  what  is  being 
attempted  in  this  direction  is  known  by  this  name,  situated 
at  Brown's  Mills-in-the-Pines,  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey, 
U.S.A.  Here  60  acres  are  used  for  the  poultry  section,  from 
which  there  were  sold  in  one  year  500,000  market  eggs,  59,380 
day -old  chicks,  92,210  hatching  eggs,  5,000  broilers,  and  a  con- 
siderable number  of  stock  birds.  Seven  thousand  hens  were 
kept  upon  the  place  at  that  time,  but  have  since  that  time  been 
increased  to  20,000.  Such  may  be  termed  a  breeding  poultry 
farm,  as  the  returns  from  sale  of  hatching  eggs,  day-old  chicks, 
and  stock  birds,  were  much  larger  than  the  market  sales,  and 


142  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

except  for  these  the  enterprise  would  have  been  a  faihire.  Upon 
that  point  I  need  not  add  to  what  is  stated  in  previous  chapters. 
A  number  of  houses  have  been  erected  for  the  layers,  each 
accommodating  500  birds.  These  houses  are  100  feet  long  and 
14  feet  wide,  0  feet  5  inches  high  in  front  and  4  feet  5  inches  at 
the  back,  the  roof  sloping  from  front  to  back.  In  the  front  are 
alternately  glass  and  muslin  curtain  windows,  so  that  the  house 
is  light  and  fairly  well  ventilated.  The  question  of  open  fronts 
is  discussed  in  Chapter  XI.,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  As 
will  be  seen  by  the  illustration  (p.  139),  there  are  no  divisions  in 
the  house,  so  that  all  the  Hock  is  in  one  compartment.  Along 
the  back  is  a  raised  platform,  commonly  adopted  in  American 
poultry  houses,  so  as  to  give  the  entire  floor  space  for  scratching 
and  to  facilitate  removal  of  manure  voided  at  night,  above  which 
are  the  perches,  three  in  number  and  on  the  same  level.  Under 
the  windows  at  the  front  is  a  long  range  of  nest  boxes,  numbering 
seventy-two  in  all,  or  one  nest  for  seven  hens.  These  have  lids, 
which  are  closed  down  at  night  to  prevent  the  hens  resting  on 
them.  Down  the  centre  of  the  house  are  food-troughs  and 
water-tanks,  the  last-named  on  raised  platforms  for  use  in  winter. 
It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  actual  floor  space  is  2*8  square 
feet  per  inmate,  which  is  not  excessive.  Each  house  has  an 
outside  run  of  about  1|  acres,  well  shaded  with  trees,  and  fenced 
with  6-foot  wire  netting.  It  is  in  that  direction  where  we  find 
the  weak  point  of  this  arrangement,  for  500  birds  on  such  an 
area  must  in  process  of  time  heavily  impregnate  it  with  manurial 
elements,  in  spite  of  whatever  care  is  taken.  Therein  lie  the 
conditions  of  ultimate  failure.  Descriptions  of  this  plant  show  it 
to  be  upon  a  most  comj^lete  "  factory  "  scale,  an  indication  of 
which  is  that  there  are  nearly  three  miles  of  piping  underground 
to  supply  water  to  the  various  pens.  The  amount  of  capital 
invested  is  not  stated.  The  last  and  only,  so  far  as  I  am  aware, 
statement  published  (1910)  recorded  that  the  expenses  for  that 
year  amounted  to  nearly  £5,000,  and  that  of  the  total  sales 
53  per  cent,  represented  breeding  stock,  hatching  eggs,  and  day- 
old  chickens,  disposed  of. 

A  Hertfordshire  Plant.— On  one  of  the  farms  of  Mr.  T.  W. 
Toovey,  of  King's  Langley,  Herts,  the  system  above  indicated 
is  being  tested,  but  with  smaller  flocks — namely,  150  birds  in 
each.  Near  the  main  line  of  the  London  and  North- Western 
Railway  Company  is  a  long,  narrow  field  of  nearly  20  acres. 
At  one  time  this  was  occupied  bj^  small  houses  and  pens,  which 
have  been  scrapped.  In  place  of  these  have  been  built  a  series 
of  fifteen  large  30  foot  by  20  foot  houses,  to  each  of  which  is 


PLATE  V. 


Semi-Intensive  House  for  Layers. 


Intensive  Poultry  House. 


INTENSIVE  AND  SEMI-INTENSIVE  METHODS       145 

allocated  an  acre  of  land,  divided  into  two  parts  for  alter- 
native occupation.  Ths  type  of  house  is  shown  in  Plate  V. 
These  houses  are  well  built,  are  lofty  and  well  ventilated.  In 
front  are  large  windows  with  netting  above,  which  latter  can 
be  covered  by  sliding  shutters  in  winter  if  that  is  thought  desir- 
able, and  the  solid  door  can  be  replaced  in  summer  b}^  one  of 
netting.  Under  the  fixed  slopmg  boards  is  netting  which  is 
never  covered.  The  floor  is  cement,  covered  thickly  with  road 
scrapings  and  chaff  above  to  j)rovide  a  scratching  litter.  This 
is  spaded  over  frequently,  and  renewed  about  once  a  month. 
The  perches  are  at  the  back,  and  drop-boards  are  not  used,  as 
Mr.  Toovey  does  not  like  them.  In  each  of  these  houses,  as 
already  stated,  150  birds  are  kept,  allowing  4  square  feet  of  floor 
sj)ace  for  each.  A  very  suggestive  and  striking  fact  is  that, 
although  the  inmates  have  half  an  acre  of  grass-land  to  run  over, 
they  hardly  come  out  of  the  house.  Although  it  was  a  beautiful 
da}^  when  my  visit  was  paid,  not  a  smgle  one  of  the  more  than 
2,000  hens  in  this  field  were  out  of  the  houses  until  they  were 
tenii)ted  or  driven  out. 

Intensive  Plants. — The  above  plants  may  fitly  be  described  as 
semi-intensive,  in  that  there  are  outside  runs  to  the  houses. 
What  now  remains  to  be  done  is  to  deal  with  one  farm  conducted 
on  purely  intensive  lines.  Of  such  there  are  several  now  in 
operation,  but  as  these  have  recently  been  founded  their  economic 
success  has  to  be  proved. 

At  West  Norwood,  which  is  a  suburb  of  London,  Mr.  F. 
Palmer-Phillips  hasc  reated  a  plant  on  2  acres  of  land,  upon 
which  400  breeders  and  layers  are  kept,  in  addition  to  which 
large  numbers  of  chickens  are  reared.  The  operations  are  ultra- 
intensive,  as  both  old  and  young  birds  are  kept  entirely  under 
cover.  The  houses  used  differ  considerably,  consisting  of  roosting 
compartment  and  covered  run,  the  last-named  open-fronted  and 
used  as  a  scratching  shed.  The  latest  development  is  that,  in 
the  newer  form,  the  roofs  are  made  to  open,  thus  giving  a  much 
freer  circulation  of  air.  Experience  has  sho\\Ti  that  hens  kept 
entirely  confined  are  healthier  and  more  productive  where  the 
roofs  open  (Plate  V.).  Under  these  conditions,  combined  with 
absolute  cleanliness,  careful  feeding  and  management,  the 
lajang  results  have  proved  excellent,  but  whether  to  a  degree 
compensating  for  the  greater  cost  of  production  I  am  unable 
to  say.  The  chickens  raised,  intended  as  breeders  and  layers, 
and  also  for  killing,  are  reared  under  like  conditions.  It  is 
entirely  a  question  of  economics,  in  which  respect  the  effect 
upon  constitutional  vigour  is  of  supreme  importance. 

10 


14(3  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Effects  of  System. — That  in  many  cases  the  productiveness  of 
hens  can  be  increased  by  adoption  of  intensive  methods  is  within 
general  experience,  equallj^  in  respect  to  eggs  and  flesh.  It  is 
known  that  in  chickens  and  ducklings  the  attainment  of  maturity 
for  killing  is  much  more  rapid  where  a  measure  of  what  may  be 
termed  "  forcing  "  is  adopted,  that  the  softness  and  quahty  of 
the  flesh  is  considerably  improved  by  this  method,  and  that  the 
profit  is  greater  even  though  the  cost  of  growing  may  not  be 
reduced.  The  same  is  true  in  egg  production,  for  reasons  which 
have  already  been  given.  In  the  former  case  the  birds  are  killed 
oflt  as  soon  as  they  are  ready.  There  are  no  succeeding  genera- 
tions to  be  affected.  That  is  a  prime  factor  making  for  the 
permanency  of  such  a  system.  My  opinion  is  that  in  respect  to 
intensive  egg  joroduction  a  similar  plan  must  be  introduced,  by 
which  is  meant  that  breeding  and  laying  stock  must  be  legarded 
differently.  In  the  one  final  reproductive  values  are  given  the 
first  place,  and  in  the  other  the  number  and  market  value  of  eggs 
accorded  the  front  rank.  Such  is  not  necessary  upon  general 
farms,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  birds  are  usually  on  range, 
and  that  there  is  not  the  same  risk  of  degeneracj'  by  excessive 
egg  production,  which  must  be  taken  into  consideration  where 
the  methods  are  intensive. 

From  available  evidence  as  a  result  of  experience  and  observa- 
tions over  a  long  series  of  years — for  the  questions  here  raised 
are  by  no  means  new — it  may  be  accepted  that,  in  a  great  number 
of  instances,  the  first  effect  of  the  systems  here  set  forth  is  to 
increase  the  average  fecundity,  sometimes  to  a  remarkable 
degree.  Why  that  should  be  so  cannot  be  stated.  Probably 
there  are  several  contribiitory  causes,  such  as  change  of  environ- 
ment, more  sheltered  conditions,  and  better  feeding,  as  well  as 
the  fact  that  those  who  take  up  this  side  of  poultry  husbandry, 
in  many  instances,  usually  exercise  greater  care  in  selection  of 
their  birds  than  do  farmers,  and,  in  the  main,  have  a  better 
system  of  housing  and  feeding.  The  point  which  has  to  be 
proved  is  whether  the  tendency  to  loss  of  constitutional  vigour, 
following  adoption  of  abnormal  methods,  can  be  prevented  or 
minimized.  If  the  latter  alone  be  true,  then  the  result  is  merely 
delayed,  but  is  none  the  less  certain. 

Constitutional  Vigour. — As  distinct  from  the  economic  asjDcct, 
which  must  be  the  final  test,  the  maintenance  of  constitutional 
vigour  is  of  supreme  importance,  not  alone  in  regard  to  the 
number  of  eggs  produced,  but  to  a  much  greater  extent  if  the 
birds  kept  under  intensive  conditions  are  to  be  used  as  breeders. 
That  camiot  be  determined  by  the  experience  of  two  or  three 


INTENSIVE  AND  SEMI-INTEN8IVE  METHODS      147 

years.  Many  of  the  most  ardent  advocates  of  the  system  are 
building  up  their  thesis  on  the  worlc  of  a  couple  of  5  ears  or  less. 
They  have  been  unable  to  discern  any  deterioration  in  the  stock, 
and  productiveness  has  not  apparentlj^  been  affected.  As  I 
have  elsewhere  pomted  out,  it  is  not  the  mochcum  of  lost  viriUty 
in  one  or  two  years  that  determines  the  problem,  but  the  ultimate 
results  due  to  an  accumulation  of  such  influences.  Too  many 
of  our  ideas  have  been  founded  upon  amateur  or  fancier  ex- 
perience, which  has  no  more  relationship  to  practical  or  utility 
poultry-keeping  than  has  the  cultivation  of  orchids  as  a  hobby 
to  potato-growing  for  market.  If  this  system  is  to  become 
an  integral  branch  of  the  poultry  industry,  it  will,  in  my  judg- 
ment, have  to  be  organized  on  totally  different  lines,  and  the 
raising  of  breeding  stock  be  distinct  from  that  of  the  layers,  in 
that  the  former  shall  be  kept  on  range.  To  use  the  words  of 
Mr.  T.  W.  Toovey,  "  I  feel  sure  of  this,  that  an  open-air  life  is 
essential  for  breeders  and  for  chickens  at  all  seasons  of  the  year." 
One  further  point  may  be  here  mentioned — namely,  that  some 
of  those  who  have  tried  intensive  methods  record  that  losses  by 
disease  in  these  flocks  is  much  greater  than  where  extensive 
systems  are  in  vogue. 

Rearing  of  Chickens. — The  basal  princiijles  of  chicken-rearing  are 
dealt  with  in  Chapter  XVI.,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for 
details  of  methods  that  have  proved  successful.  It  may  be  stated, 
however,  until  the  fact  is  recognized  that  methods  which  are  com- 
mendable for  one  purpose  may  be  fatal  in  another,  much  loss 
will  result.  For  instance,  during  an  inquiry  into  the  poultry 
epidemic  which  devastated  Belgium  in  1912  and  1913,  I  found 
upon  many  farms  that  the  plan  was  adopted  of  rearing  all 
chickens  alike  upon  a  forcing  sj^stem,  mainly  feeding  upon  soft 
food  to  induce  rapid  growth  of  body  and  softness  of  bone;  and 
when  these  were  about  twelve  weeks  old,  selection  was  made 
from  these  of  a  number  to  be  kept  as  Ijreeders.  At  that  age  the 
latter  are  put  out  on  the  open  ground,  subsequent^  growing 
much  more  slowly  than  others  destined  to  be  killed.  That  was 
a  desirable  arrangement,  so  far  as  the  latter  jjart  was  concerned, 
but  the  harm  already  done  could  never  be  wholly  recovered. 
Vigour  of  constitution  does  not  depend  upon  any  one  factor, 
but  many.  Health  and  strength  of  the  parents,  environmental 
influences  during  the  embrj^onic  period,  conditions  and  food 
supplied  during  the  growing  stages,  all  share  in  determining  the 
prolificacy  of  pullets  and  the  power  of  transmission  to  their 
progen5^  Failure  in  any  one  of  these  directions  means  enfeeble- 
mcnt.     "  The  strength  of  a  chain  is  determined  by  its  weakest 


118  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

link."  When,  combined  with  the  above,  there  is  breeding  from 
immature  stock,  artificial  hatching  and  rearing  siiccessively 
generation  after  generation,  the  combination  of  influences  cannot 
be  overcome  by  selection,  however  careful  that  may  be.  One 
large  Belgian  breeder  informed  me  he  was  endeavouring  to 
develop  a  race  of  Malines  fowls  that  would  adapt  itself  to  breeding 
and  rearing  in  confinement.  That  such  could  be  accomplished 
may  be  accepted,  provided  the  evolutionary  period  were  long 
enough.  In  the  doing  so,  however,  the  profitable  qualities  would 
assuredly  be  largely  sacrificed,  and  reproductiveness  be  lost  to 
a  considerable  extent.  The  adaptability  of  fowls,  as  other 
animals,  has  its  limitations.  Poultry  husbandry  as  a  whole 
must  have  as  its  foundation  production  for  supply  of  human 
food.  The  great  majority  of  those  engaged  in  it  cannot  sell 
stock  birds,  etc.,  which  is  the  business  of  a  few.  Methods  must 
be  adapted  to  the  former. 

The  Application. — It  is  of  supreme  importance,  therefore,  to 
recognize  the  limitations,  which  are  considerable.  First  and 
foremost  of  these  is  the  fact  that  the  conditions  are  abnormal  in 
the  extreme,  and  that  the  accumulated  tendencies  over  a  series 
of  years  will  be  to  reduce  the  natural  vigour  of  the  fowls,  and 
therefore  their  productiveness.  It  is  not  what  is  lost  in  one  or 
two  years,  but  the  result  if  continued.  Statements  are  being 
put  forward  to  the  contrary,  without  evidence  to  justify  them, 
and  they  are  antagonistic  to  all  previous  experience.  In  my 
judgment,  therefore,  hens  reared  and  kept  on  "  bird-cage " 
lines  should  not  be  used  as  breeding  stock.  What  may  be  done 
is  to  buy  sittings  of  eggs,  or,  better  still,  day-old  chicks.  Rear 
these  and  retain  the  pullets  as  layers,  renewing  the  stock  in  this 
way  every  year.  By  this  system  much  may  be  accomplished. 
To  breed  from  these  pullets  year  after  year  will  eventuate  in 
disaster.  The  buying  of  chicks  will  cost  no  more  than  would 
male  birds ;  and  if  these  are  obtained  from  hens  kept  naturally, 
the  vigour  of  the  race  will  be  maintained,  without  which  all  will 
be  in  vain.  This  question  is  not  to  be  determined  by  the  relative 
fertility  of  eggs,  but  bj^  the  virility  of  the  birds.  The  plan  here 
indicated  will  avoid  all  the  labour  and  expense  of  hatching, 
whether  by  natural  or  artificial  means,  and  to  that  extent  reduce 
the  cost  of  equipment.  We  may  learn  much  from  experience  with 
other  classes  of  stock.  The  town  dairyman  does  not  breed  from 
his  cows.  He  buys  when  they  have  calved,  and  sells  as  soon  as 
they  are  going  dry.  Such,  modified  to  the  extent  suggested  above, 
should  be  applied  to  poultry-keeping  on  these  intensive  lines. 

I  may  again  emphasize  the  point  that  the  way  to  permanent 


INTENSIVE  AND  SEMI-INTENSIVE  METHODS        149 

success  is  by  preserving  the  due  balance  between  animal  and 
plant  life,  whether  under  extensive  or  intensive  conditions.  In 
this  direction  much  may  be  learnt  from  the  Chinese,  who  appear 
to  understand  the  secret  in  a  wonderful  manner,  and  are  thus 
able  to  maintain  a  very  dense  population;  or  by  breeding  poultry 
under  more  natural  conditions,  and  keeping  the  laj^ers  intensively 
for  the  sake  of  their  eggs.  The  former  method  has  been  proved 
to  be  successful.  Whether  the  latter  can  be  the  same  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  has  yet  to  be  decided. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING 

Choice  of  position  for  the  poultry  must  depend  in  large 
measure  upon  the  branch  of  poultry  husbandry  undertaken, 
and  the  system  which  is  adopted.  The  farmer  who  desu-es  to 
extend  and  develop  poultry  as  an  integral  part  of  his  livestock 
must  accept  the  conditions  under  which  he  lives,  endeavouring 
to  make  the  best  of  them  in  accordance  with  what  is  stated  in 
Chapter  VI.  When  provision  has  been  made  for  hatching  and 
rearing  at  or  near  the  homestead,  and  the  portable  or  colony 
houses  to  be  used,  he  is  equipped  for  operations  on  extensive 
lines.  In  that  case,  however,  the  principles  laid  down  in  this 
chapter  as  to  the  houses  should  be  observed.  Also  it  is  desirable 
for  these  houses,  when  distributed,  to  be  so  placed  that  the  fowls 
can  take  advantage  of  such  shelter  as  is  available.  To  a  lesser 
degree  the  same  is  true  for  the  small  and  allotment  holder.  Or, 
when  one  of  the  regular  farm  buildings  is  used  as  a  poultrj^  house, 
the  conditions  made  should  conform  to  these  principles.  Where 
the  work,  however,  has  to  be  carried  out  on  specialist  lines,  as 
dealt  with  in  the  two  previovis  chapters,  the  question  of  position 
is  one  which  demands  careful  consideration.  In  many  parts  of 
Britain,  those  who  intend  taking  up  poultry  husbandry  on  special 
lines  have  often  great  difficulty  in  finding  a  suitable  place  in  a 
convenient  position,  though  in  this  respect  there  has  been  a 
distinct  advance  within  recent  years,  and  it  may  be  hoped  that 
opportunities  will  be  increased  in  the  future.  Frequently  land 
can  be  obtained  without  a  suitable  house,  or  vice  versa.  The 
combination  has  to  be  sought  for.  Before  choice  is  made,  it  is 
important  to  learn  what  are  the  conditions  at  every  season  of 
the  year,  and  not  to  judge  a  place  alone  by  its  asj)ect  in  the  summer 
time.  Convenience  is  also  a  factor,  though  that  has  frequently 
an  influence  upon  the  rent. 

Are  Poultry  Houses  Necessary? — That  under  natural  condi- 
tions poultry  neither  use  noj-,  in  fact,  need  enclosed  buildings  is 
150 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        151 

certain.  Accommodation  of  this  nature  is  one  of  the  resiilts  of 
domestication.  Whilst  it  may  be  correct  that  housing  is  desir- 
able to  afford  protection  and  shelter,  more  especialty  at  night,  and 
to  minimize  the  influence  of  extremes  of  heat  or  cold,  especialty 
the  last-named,  with  a  view  to  greater  egg  production  and  to 
avoidance  of  loss  in  the  elements  which  make  for  flesh  develop- 
ment, the  main  reason  why  houses  are  used  is  that  the  birds  may 
be  imder  more  complete  control  of  the  attendant,  and  that  his 
labour  shall  be  reduced  as  far  as  possible.  Further,  the  greater 
the  number  of  birds  kept,  the  more  essential  is  it  that  they  shall 
be  organized  in  groups,  otherwise  many  would  fall  victims  to 
their  enemies.  Domestication  has  the  effect  of  checking  the 
migratory  instinct,  by  which,  in  accordance  with  the  season  of 
the  year,  a  change  of  habitat  takes  place. 

As  a  question  of  health  and  constitutional  \dgour,  distinct 
from  productiveness,  houses  are  not  desirable  for  poultry. 
Briefly  stated,  in  those  respects,  the  arrangement  is  second  best. 
Left  to  themselves,  they  would  select  trees  for  roosting,  remo\ing 
from  one  place  to  another  as  the  seasons  demanded.  The 
tendency  of  such  system,  however,  would  be  towards  reversion 
to  the  ancestral  type,  and  to  delay  commencement  of  laying  or 
of  hatching,  as  well  as  reduction  of  productiveness.  Cases  have 
come  under  notice  in  which  success  was  achieved  where  birds 
were  not  enclosed.  Those  are  exceptional,  and  it  is  seldom  that 
the  conditions  are  favourable.  At  the  same  time  such  a  system 
means  limitation  of  opportunity,  and  the  numbers  maintained 
are  only  capable  of  extension  in  accordance  with  the  capacity. 
Therefore,  provision  of  housing  accommodation  is  essential  to 
development  of  poultry  husbandry.  In  some  districts,  also, 
absence  of  trees  would  mean  an  entire  want  of  natural  shelter. 
What  has  to  be  sought  for  is  form  of  the  house  in  which  the 
disadvantages  can  be  minimized  to  the  fullest  extent,  and  the 
undoubted  benefits  secured.  That  such  is  possible  has  been 
abundantly  proved. 

Aspect  and  Location. — Farmers,  therefore,  who  desire  to  adopt 
the  colony  method,  or  specialists  establishing  a  breeding  or 
intensive  plant,  require  to  consider  what  are  the  best  conditions 
for  such  purposes.  There  can  be  no  question  that  the  southern 
slope  of  a  hill  is  to  be  preferred,  the  reasons  for  which  are  explained 
by  Mr.  Primrose  McConnell :  "  A  hill  or  range  of  hills  has  always 
got  several  sides  or  slopes,  and  as  the  sun  shines  in  the  heavens, 
from  east  round  by  the  south  to  the  west* — i.e.,  when  he  shines 

*  In  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 


152  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

at  all — it  follows  that  the  northern  side  of  a  hill,  besides  being 
more  exposed  to  the  cold  storms  which  come  from  the  north  in 
winter,  receives  much  less  of  the  sunshine,  when  there  is  any 
in  our  salubrious  climate.  Indeed,  in  the  winter  time,  when  he 
is  low  in  the  heavens,  even  at  midday  the  northern  slopes  may 
never  get  any  direct  sunshine  at  all.  This  means  a  very  great 
drawback  to  both  the  plants  and  the  animals  of  the  farm.  The 
pastures  on  the  northern  side  of  a  hill  are  more  liable  to  become 
fogged  up  with  moss  than  those  of  the  same  quality  of  soil 
having  a  southern  aspect.  When  the  slope  of  the  ground  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  rays  of  the  sun — i.e.,  about  25  to  30  degrees — 
it  receives  the  maximum  amount  of  heat,  but  a  slope  of  this 
angle  would  be  rather  steep  for  comfortable  farming.  ...  A 
gentle  slope  facing  the  sun  is  the  most  suitable,  while  a  slope 
away  from  the  sun  is  undesirable."*  For  second  choice  we 
should  prefer  south-east  or  south-west.  An  undulating  country 
is  much  better  than  a  plain,  as  the  latter  is  more  exposed  to 
prevailing  winds,  and  seldom  affords  miich  natural  shelter, 
whilst  there  is  greater  danger  of  the  land  being  damp.  Flat 
land  should  always  be  well  drained.  It  is  desirable  to  secure 
the  advantage  of  such  natural  shelter,  more  especially  in  the 
shape  of  woods  or  trees,  which  render  great  service  in  affording 
protection  against  winds  or  extreme  heat,  both  of  which  are 
equally  injurious,  though,  of  the  Avinds,  that  from  the  east  usually 
affects  animal  life  most  of  all.  Hence  those  whose  land  is  exposed 
to  the  east  have  special  need  to  avail  themselves  of  such  shelter 
as  can  be  secured  against  the  malign  influence  of  the  east  or 
north-east  winds,  except  in  some  sections  of  the  country  where 
westerly  or  south-westerly  gales  are  most  troublesome. 

It  must  not  be  imagined  that  every  place  is  equally  suitable 
at  all  periods  of  the  year.  We  must,  as  with  other  branches  of 
stock,  recognize  that  varying  seasons  require  varied  methods. 
Low-lying  land  may  be  excellent  in  summer  when  the  season  is 
dry,  and  is  much  better  than  higher,  hotter  soils  at  that  period 
of  the  year.  On  the  other  hand,  the  higher  land,  if  not  too 
much  exposed,  would  be  more  suitable  for  the  fowls  in  winter, 
due  to  its  dryer  nature.  Also,  woodland,  by  reason  of  being  cooler 
and  affording  plenty  of  shade,  j)roviding  an  abundance  of  insect 
life,  cannot  be  excelled  during  the  heat  of  summer,  but  would 
be  damp,  dark,  and  cold,  for  fowls  in  winter.  Our  object  should  be 
to  minimize  extremes,  either  of  heat  or  cold.  The  worst  of  all 
places  for  poultry,  either  for  j^oung  or  adult  fowls,  as  for  other 
classes  of  stock,  is  the  bare,  treeless  lands,  open  alike  to  the 
*  "  Agricultural  Geology,"  1902,  p.  106. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        153 

intense  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  blasts  of  winter.  On 
larger  farms  the  northern  slopes  shovdd  be  \ised  in  summer, 
though  in  the  United  Kingdom  the  southern  woidd  be  preferable 
for  nine  months  out  of  the  twelve. 

General  Principles. — Consideration  is  given  below  to  questions 
of  size  and  shai)e  of  poultry  houses,  which  have  their  influence 
upon  the  well-being  of  inmates.  What,  however,  is  of  greater 
importance  is  the  application  of  hygienic  conditions,  so  that 
the  fowls  or  other  poultry  may  have  an  opportunity,  at  least,  of 
rewarding  their  owner  for  his  enterprise.  Unless  that  is  accom- 
plished, success  cannot  be  expected.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
state  that  a  vast  amount  of  disease  among  domestic  poultry  is 
due  to  neglect  of  these  precautions.  During  six  months  of  the 
year  fowls  spend  half,  or  more  than  half,  the  twenty -four  hours 
on  their  perches  in  portable  or  colony  houses,  and  where  they  are 
kept  within  enclosures  probably  three -fourths  their  time.  I 
indicate  below,  therefore,  principles  which  should  be  applied  to 
all  forms  of  poultry  dwellings,  whether  permanent  or  portable, 
large  or  small.  It  is  not  so  much,  in  my  judgment,  the  type  of 
house  used,  as  whether  it  conforms  to  the  requirements  laid  down. 
Fortunately,  the  experience  of  recent  years  has  brought  about 
changes  which  enable  us  to  state  clearly  the  conditions  applicable 
to  all  such  structures. 

Materials. — Where  poultry  houses  are  permanent  and  not 
intended  to  be  removed,  there  is  no  question  that  stone  or  brick 
houses,  especially  if  these  materals  are  inexpensive,  are  the  best, 
although  the  cost  is  greater  at  first.  All  other  houses  must  be 
of  wood,  which  has  distinct  advantages.  In  the  first  place  it 
is  comparatively  cheap ;  it  can  be  easily  handled,  it  may  be  used 
for  a  house  that  can  be  readily  moved,  and,  what  is  of  special 
importance,  a  house  of  wood  built  above  the  ground  remains 
the  tenant's  property.  As  a  consequence  the  great  majority  of 
poultry  houses  are  made  of  wood.  A  large  trade  is  done  by 
poultry  appliance  manufacturers  in  this  direction.  In  many 
cases,  however,  to  meet  a  craze  for  cheapness,  the  timber  employed 
is  insubstantial  or  has  not  been  properly  seasoned.  Green  deals 
are  cheaper  than  well-seasoned  wood,  but  the  resi;lt  is  unsatis- 
factory, in  that  during  dry  weather  these  pine  and  warp,  leaving 
gaps  that  subject  the  inmates  to  draughts.  In  the  case  of 
portable  huts  weight  has  to  be  considered,  and  consequently 
the  same  thickness  of  boards  cannot  be  employed  as  in  a  per- 
manent or  semi-permanent  structure.  Whenever  possible  the 
deals  should  be  |^  or  1  inch  in  thickness,  of  good  quality,  and 


154  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

be  in  dry  coi)dition.  An  excellent  plan,  especially  in  buildings 
which  have  not  to  be  frequently  removed,  is  to  use  overlapjiing 
boards  laid  ht)rizontally,  as  these  cany  off  water  better  than  do 
deals  which  are  tongued  and  grooved.  In  portable  houses  the 
latter  are  preferable,  and  should  be  vertically  and  tightly  fixed, 
by  which  method  there  is  less  risk  of  water  penetrating  and 
making  the  interior  walls  damp.  Whatever  the  form  of  house, 
it  is  of  great  importance  fhat  the  framework  should  be  strong. 
In  the  case  of  portable  houses,  whether  on  wheels  or  runners, 
the  under-frame  should  be  of  3-inch  scantling,  firmlj'  bolted 
or  mortised,  as  otherwise  it  would  be  unable  to  withstand  the 
strain  of  removal. 

One  of  the  most  important  considerations  in  all  forms  of 
houses  is  to  keep  the  interior  dry.  Another  is  to  preserve  the 
wood.  To  these  ends  the  under-frames  should  be  well  tarred, 
and,  in  the  case  of  permanent  wooden  erections  standing  upon 
bricks,  a  coating  of  tar  should  cover  the  top  row.  Tarring  a 
house  is  the  cheapest  method.  Painting  looks  better,  though 
somewhat  expensive  to  maintain.  That  will  not  be  required 
more  than  once  in  three  years,  except  for  appearance'  sake, 
provided  good  lead  paint  is  used.  (Gas  tar  purchased  in  quantity 
can  generally  be  obtained  at  about  fourpence  per  gallon,  and,  if 
mixed  with  a  little  paraffin  oil,  dries  quickly.^  \_Creosote  is  valu- 
able in  that  it  keeps  down  parasitic  life.  There  are  other 
preparations  on  the  market  which  are  very  efficient  for  that 
purpose,  and  also  act  as  preservatives.  ^ 

Roofing. — A  good  roof  is  more  than  half  a  good  house.  Heat 
and  cold  are  atmospheric.  The  roof,  whatever  the  size  and  form, 
has  much  to  do  with  the  temperature  of  the  interior.  The 
object,  therefore,  should  be  to  minimize  extremes  in  either  of 
the  directions  named.  A  slight  covering  means  that  in  winter 
the  house  will  be  colder,  and  in  summer  hotter,  than  even  the 
oiitside  air,  due  to  radiation  and  to  the  slower  movement  of 
the  atmosphere.  A  cold  wind  blowing  reduces  the  inside  tem- 
perature by  striking  against  the  walls,  yet  not  to  the  same  extent 
as  when  the  roof  is  inadequate.  As  a  general  rule,  therefore, 
the  last-named  should  be  more  substantial  than  the  walls.  That 
is  secured,  not  by  thicker  timber,  but  by  a  double  covering,  first 
fixing  a  lining  of  match  boarding  f  or  |  inch  thick,  above 
which  is  corrugated  iron  or  felt,  or  any  of  the  roofing  materials 
advertised.  Corrugated  iron  should  never  be  employed  alone, 
as  it  is  a  rapid  conductor  of  heat  and  cold.  When  lined  as  stated 
above,  it  is  excellent  for  carrying  off  the  rain,  and  allowing  air 
to  pass  along  the  corrugations,  which  acts  as  a  cushion  against 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        155 

heat  and  cold  alike.  When  ordinary  commercial  roofing  felt 
is  employed,  that  should  be  fixed  horizontally,  with  the  edge  of 
each  upper  strip  projecting  an  inch  above  that  below,  and  be 
well  nailed  down,  for  which  purpose  thin  laths  of  wood  are 
valuable.  It  should  also  be  well  tarred  in  the  late  summer  of 
every  year  to  maintain  in  good  condition.  "WTien  other  patent 
roofing  sheets  are  used,  these  should  be  treated  as  prescribed  by 
the  makers.  For  permanent  or  fixed'structnres,  it  is  well  worth 
the  additional  cost  to  use  between  the  match  boarding  and 
corrugated  iron  ordinary  felting,  the  expense  of  which  is  tri\ial. 

Ventilation. — The  late  Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone  is  said  to  have 
made  a  statement  that  oxygen  obtained  from  the  atmosphere 
is  one  of  if  not  the  most  important  part  of  the  food  of  animals. 
Upon  this  point  Dr.  Edward  Smith,  in  his  work  on  "  Foods/' 
says:  "The  necessity  for  oxygen  as  a  food  is  absolute  and 
unintermittent.  .  .  .  The  body  is  a  great  oxidizing  apparatus, 
by  which  it  sustains  its  bulk,  produces  heat,  and  modifies  the 
composition  of  the  atmosphere,  and,  when  it  has  cast  off  that 
which,  having  been  used,  is  no  longer  useful  to  it,  not  only 
deteriorates  the  atmosphere,  but  renders  it  impure.  It  is  not 
too  general  an  expression  to  say  that  every  action  within  the 
body  is  accompanied  by  the  consumption  of  oxygen  and  deteriora- 
tion of  the  surrounding  air."  In  no  direction  has  there  been 
greater  change  of  \aews  during  recent  years  than  this.  The 
gospel  of  fresh  air  has  been,  and  is  being,  preached  for  human 
beings  and  all  animal  life.  So  long  as  men  and  domesticated 
creatures  were  able  to  spend  the  greater  part  of  the  day  in  the 
open,  and  at  night  find  accommodation  in  rough  structures,  the 
question  might  be  neglected.  Concentration  and  increase  of 
numbers  involve  considerations  that  would  not  otherwise  arise. 
The  question  of  abundant  supply  of  fresh,  sweet  air,  whilst 
important  for  all  animals,  is  so  to  the  greater  extent  with  poultrj^ 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  body  temperature  is  higher  than  that 
of  mammals,  and  combustion  more  rapid.  The  temperature  is 
maintained  by  combustion  of  the  nutritive  food  elements  com- 
bined with  oxygen,  exactly  as  a  fire  cannot  burn  unless  oxygen 
is  mixed  with  the  carbon  of  coal  or  wood.  Insufficiency  of 
oxygen  results  in  reduction  of  combustion,  loss  of  heat,  and 
impregnation  of  the  blood  with  impurities,  thus  causing  disease. 
The  old  notion  that  conservation  of  heat  was  secured  by  "  close, 
cabined,  and  confined  "  dwellings,  whether  for  humans  or  hens, 
is,  I  hoiae,  gone  for  ever.  Body  temperature  is  maintained  by 
consumption  of  various  elements  to  an  adequate  extent,  not  by 
prevention  of  that  process. 


156 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


Upon  this  point,  observations  have  been  made  at  the  South- 
Eastern  Agricultural  College,  Wye,  Kent,  Ijy  Messrs.  E.  J. 
Russell,  I). 8c.,  and  K.  J.  J.  Mackenzie,  in  which  it  was  stated  that 
(1)  birds  breathe  about  a  pint  of  air  per  minute,  or  1-2  cubic 
feet  per  hour ;  (2)  with  insufficient  air-supply  their  respiration  is 
impeded ;  (3)  the  limit  of  impurity  should  not  exceed  9  volumes  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  per  10,000  of  air;  and  (4)  each  bird  requires  at 
least  35  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour  if  this  limit  is  not  to  be  ex- 
ceeded, and  a  freer  supply  was  recommended.  It  may  be  men- 
tioned that  the  Factory  and  Workshops  Act  for  cotton  operatives 
allows  the  volume  under  No.  3  above,  but  for  poultry  it  would 
be  desirable  that  the  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  should  be  much 
less — nearer  that  of  ordinary  air,  which  averages  3  volumes 
per  10,000  in  the  country,  and  4  volumes  in  towns.  The  final 
conclusions,  arrived  at,  so  far  as  smaller  poultry  houses  are 
concerned,  were  that  10  cubic  feet  of  air  space  should  be  allowed 
for  each  inmate. 

Methods  of  Ventilation. — Formerly  the  use  of  small  holes  or 
louvre  boards  in  the  gables,  or  spaces  below  the  eaves,  or  air 
shafts,  were  regarded  as  all-suffi- 
cient for  this  purpose  by  poultry- 
keepers.  Such  arrangements  were 
merely  plajdng  with  the  question, 
especially  where  the  number  of 
inmates  was  large  in  relation  to 
the  cubic  capacity  of  the  house. 
In  the  majority  of  these  buildings 
the  birds  underwent  a  slow  poison- 
ing, even  where  the  air  was  pure 
at  first,  as  there  was  not  sufficient 
circidation  to  insure  constant 
carrying  off  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
expelled  from  the  lungs,  and  re- 
placement by  an  adequate  volume 
of  fresh  air.  All  that  has  been 
changed  by  adoption  of  what  is 
kno%vn  as  the  open-front  house, 
described  in  a  later  paragraph,  by  which  the  reserves  of  air  outside 
can  be  dra%vn  upon  as  required  without  hindrance.  There  is  a 
further  consideration  involved — namely,  that  ill-ventilated  houses 
are  always  damp  owing  to  the  condensation  of  moisture  upon  the 
interior  walls,  where  gathers  water  contained  in  the  atmosphere, 
the  humidity  of  which  is  increased  by  the  expelled  breath  of  fowls. 
It  is  within  the  observations  of  evervone  that  in  a  badlv-ventilaled 


Fio.  8. — Ventilatinq  Shaft. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        157 

room,  wherein  are  a  number  of  persons,  moisture  gathers  on  the 
walls  and  windows.  Such  is  also  the  case  in  poultry  houses. 
This  moisture  reduces  the  body  temperature,  and  in  cold  weather 
chills  the  birds,  causing  various  diseases  as  well  as  increasing 
the  fcetid  nature  of  the  atmosphere.  In  large,  deep  houses, 
even  where  open-fronted,  it  is  desirable  also  to  have  ventilating 
shafts  as  shown  in  Fig.  8. 

Light. — Some  years  ago  I  was  asked  by  the  owner,  who  was 
very  proud  of  his  work,  to  inspect  a  new  poultry  house.  Well 
designed  and  well  built,  according  to  the  ideas  then  prevailing, 
save  in  one  direction — namelj^  there  was  no  provision  for  light, 
as  it  was  a  solid  walled  building.  Until  the  builder  realized 
that  he  had  never  been  inside  except  when  the  door  was  open, 
and  that  a  closed  door  meant  absolute  darkness,  he  could  not 
appreciate  his  omission,  which  was  very  serious  indeed.  It 
is  a  recognized  fact  that  sunlight  is  the  source  of  heat,  and  also 
that  the  rays  of  the  sun  purify  the  atmosphere.  Researches 
have  shown  that  bacteria  and  parasites  multiply  nuich  more  rapidly 
within  dwellings  than  in  the  open  air,  and  it  must  be  evident 
that,  unless  care  is  taken  to  prevent  their  increase,  they  become 
a  very  serious  factor  in  antagonism  to  the  efforts  of  the  poultry- 
keeper.  The  effect  of  the  sun's  rays,  as  already  indicated,  is  to 
cleanse  the  air,  for  which  reason  during  the  warmer  months  of 
the  year — especially  in  a  moist  climate  such  as  we  have  in  this 
country — the  parasitic  increase  is  very  much  greatei-  in  dark 
houses  than  in  those  which  are  well  lighted.  Introduction  of  the 
open-front  house,  if  built  on  hygienic  principles,  has  effected 
a  revolution  in  this  direction.  We  have  only  to  use  our  own 
observations  in  connection  with  human  dwellings  to  note  that, 
during  the  winter  season  especiall}^  a  dark  room  is  colder  than 
one  into  which  the  sun's  rays  can  penetrate.  In  summer  a 
poultry  house,  as  also  a  room  facing  south,  may  be  unduly  hot, 
but  that  can  be  provided  against  in  other  ways.  During  the 
winter  season  the  object  of  the  poultry -keeper  ought  to  be  to 
secure  the  advantage  of  whatever  sunshine  there  may  be.  If 
windows  are  used,  these  should  be  large  and  made  to  open,  in 
addition  to  which  there  should  be  an  unboarded  space  above, 
over  which  is  stretched  wire  netting.  As  a  rule  in  houses  for 
adult  poultrj^  glass  is  not  required. 

Heating. — At  one  period  the  idea  was  general  that,  in  order 
to  obtain  eggs  in  winter,  artificial  heating  was  desirable.  The 
assumption  was  that  the  warmer  conditions  prevailing  during 
the  spring  and  summer  months  were  conducive  to  laying,  and  that 


158  POULTRY  HU8BANDRY 

if  these  could  be  provided  in  the  colder  months  productiveness 
would  continue.  All  that  has  gone  by  the  board  and  proved  to 
be  incorrect.  I  only  mention  the  question  here  raised  to  nay  that 
artificial  heat  is  not  required,  and  as  a  question  of  health,  which 
is  a  primarj^  consideration,  does  a  great  amount  of  harm,  causing 
debility  of  constitution  and  reduction  of  \'itality. 

Floors. — What  shall  be  the  floor  within  a  poultry  house  must 
be  determined  by  the  class  of  building  used,  and  whether  it  is 
permanent,  temporary,  or  portable.  That  which  might  be 
desirable  in  one  case  would  be  unsuitable  m  another.  Intro- 
duction of  the  scratching-shed  system  has  worked  considerable 
change  in  this  direction  as  in  others,  making  possible  what  would 
otherwise  be  undesirable.  The  better  plan,  therefore,  will  be 
to  classify  the  houses  and  show  the  floors  which  are  commended 
for  each. 

In  large  semi-intensive  buildings,  as  these  are  not  intended 
to  be  removed,  cement  is  being  used  very  largely  both  in  this 
country  and  America.  Such  should  be  thickly  covered  with 
litter,  other^vise  it  would  be  very  cold  and  hard  to  the  feet  of 
the  fowls.  That  is  why  it  is  not  found  desirable  in  ordinary 
houses  for  poultry.  It  has  great  advantages  in  that  rats  find 
difficulty  in  working  their  way  through,  and  by  jiresentation 
of  a  smooth  solid  surface,  without  interstices,  there  is  less  danger 
of  manure  finding  a  lodgment  therein,  which,  unless  the  litter 
is  properly  treated,  is  the  trouble  with  bricks,  as  these  are  very 
absorbent.  The  last-named,  however,  can  be  used  where  they 
are  reasonable  in  price.  Generally  speaking,  cement  is  the 
cheaper.  As  everything  will  depend  iqion  its  being  well  laid, 
the  wiser  plan  is  to  employ  good  workmen.  A  few  additional 
shillings  spent  in  this  manner  will  be  economical,  as  theie  must 
be  a  firm  bed  below  of  stone  or  gravel.  Unless  the  cement  has 
a  sure  basis  and  is  sufficiently  thick,  cracks  will  appear.  Under 
such  circumstances  there  should  be  a  boundary  of,  say,  three 
or  four  courses  of  brick,  upon  which  the  walls  of  the  house  will 
rest,  and  within  this  the  bed  is  made  with  the  cement  laid  over 
all.  In  districts  where  gravel  is  plentiful,  the  floor  may  be 
entirely  of  that  material,  rolling  or  beating  down  each  layer  as 
placed,  using  coarser  at  the  bottom  and  finer  on  top.  With 
the  latter  may  be  mixed  a  little  lime  or  cement,  and  the  whole 
rolled  until  it  is  as  smooth  as  possible. 

For  smaller  houses  that  possibly  may  be  removed  after  the 
lapse  of  a  few  j^ears,  the  same  plan  may  be  adopted  as  to  the 
supporting  walls,  which  has  the  effect  of  raising  the  floor  above 
the  level  of  the  outside  ground  and  preventing  dampness.    Under 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        159 

these  circumstances  gravel  should  be  used  as  already  commended, 
if  that  is  possible.  Sand  is  not  desirable  if  litter  is  to  be  above, 
as  it  does  not  form  a  hard  bed.  Better  than  that  is  well-beaten 
earth.  Frequently  in  such  houses  wood  is  the  cheapest  flooring 
— that  is,  where  the  materials  referred  to  are  scarce  and  dear. 
Whenever  that  is  the  case,  the  floor  must  be  covered  with  litter, 
or  sand,  or  dry  earth,  as  it  is  absorbent,  and  in  process  of  time 
will  become  charged  with  ammonia,  though  this  can  to  some 
extent  be  prevented  by  tarring  once  a  year  and  rigid  clean- 
liness. 

What  are  known  as  intensive  houses  must  have  wooden  floors 
in  the  upper  tiers.  In  those  on  the  ground  sand  is  the  basis, 
to  be  dug  over  constantly  and  renewed  frequently. 

Portable  house,  whether  on  runners  or  wheels,  are  employed 
for  roosting  and  laying  only,  and  do  not  include  scratching 
sheds.  These  would  add  considerably  to  the  weight  ^vithout 
any  commensurate  advantage,  as  birds  on  range  can  find  abun- 
dant opportunity  for  scratching  outside  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  year.  In  these  the  most  desirable  plan  is  to  make  the 
ground  upon  which  the  house  rests  its  floor.  In  this  manner 
the  work  is  simplified.  The  manure  as  voided  falls  directly 
upon,  and  is  absorbed  by,  the  earth,  so  that  its  full  value  is 
realized.  A  further  recommendation  is  that  such  houses  are 
warmer  in  cold  weather  than  when  provided  with  a  wooden 
floor,  owing  to  loss  of  earth  heat  in  the  latter. 

To  carry  out  such  system  it  is  necessary  that  removal  to 
another  location  shall  be  fairly  frequent.  We  are  here,  how- 
ever, met  with  a  difficulty  of  considerable  importance — namely, 
that,  unless  the  walls  are  continued  to  the  ground,  there  will 
be  strong  draughts  sweeping  direct  to  the  birds,  and,  moreover, 
an  easy  mode  of  ingress  is  afforded  to  enemies.  Something  can 
be  done  by  hinged  or  sliding  boards,  though  these  are  seldom 
satisfactory  or  fit  closely.  As  a  consequence  attempts  have 
been  made  to  introduce  a  simple  but  effective  mechanism,  by 
which  a  poultry  house  can  be  raised  on  to  wheels  for  removal, 
and  lowered  when  that  has  taken  place,  the  walls  thus  resting 
upon  the  ground.  Particulars  of  these  are  given  later  in  the 
present  chapter. 

Failing  such  arrangement,  portable  houses  on  wheels  or  runners 
should  be  fitted  with  a  substantial  well-fitting  wooden  floor, 
which  undoubtedly  has  the  effect  of  giving  rigidity  to  the  entire 
structure,  preventing  draughts,  and  the  entrance  from  below 
of  other  animals.  Such  flooring  should  be  treated  as  already 
stated. 


IGO  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Perches. — Fowls  and  turkeys  sleep  on  perches,  ducks  and  geese 
do  not.  Therefore  wo  have  to  arrange  according^.  Perches 
for  tiu-keys  are  described  in  Chapter  XX.  My  present  remarks 
apply  only  to  fowls,  which  under  natural  conditions  roost  in 
the  trees,  and  generally  get  as  high  up  as  they  possibly  can. 
For  this  reason,  when  the  birds  are  placed  under  cover,  it  has 
been  thought  the  peiches  should  be  high.  A  modification  has 
been  the  old  ladder  form  of  perch,  one  end  of  each  supporting 
upright  resting  upon  the  ground,  and  the  other  against  the  wall. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  this  form  of  perch  enables  more 
birds  to  be  accommodated  within  the  same  space  than  if  they  are 
upon  one  level.  It  is  not  a  form  to  be  recommended.  For 
various  reasons  all  the  perches  should  be  upon  the  same  level, 
and  not  more  than  2  feet  above  the  ground.  The  nearer  the 
birds  roost  to  the  earth,  the  cooler  in  summer  and  the  warmer 
in  winter  they  will  be. 

So  far  as  the  perches  are  concerned,  they  ma}-  be  made  either 
of  fir  poles,  not  more  than  2  inches  in  diameter,  or  of  pieces  of 
quartering,  2  inches  by  1  inch,  with  the  corners  rounded  off. 
In  houses  of  moderate  size  it  is  better  to  have  sockets  in  the 
walls,  and  drop  the  perches  in,  so  that  they  can  be  easily  removed ; 
but  in  larger  houses  a  frame  can  be  built  by  which  they  are 
supported  in  the  same  manner.  All  perches  should  be  removable 
to  facilitate  cleaning. 

Manj^  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  fowl  perches,  but 
with  very  little  success;  in  fact,  the  simpler  everything  is  the 
better.  Perches  may  be  fitted  to  a  rigid  frame,  hinged  to  the 
back  wall,  so  that  in  the  day  time  the  whole  may  be  raised  and 
fixed,  thus  giving  a  greater  day  range  of  floor  in  a  scratching 
shed.  That  is  an  excellent  arrangement,  provided  the  hinges 
are  of  the  sliding  form,  so  that  the  jjerch  frame  can  be  entirely 
removed  as  required  for  cleaning. 

Nests. — Fixed  nests  should  never  be  used,  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  keeping  them  clean  and  free  from  parasites,  which 
frequently  find  there  a  harbourage.  For  small  flocks  single  nest 
boxes  without  bottoms  are  to  be  commended.  Where  numbers 
are  greater,  allowing  one  box  for  each  three  hens,  an  excellent 
arrangement  is  to  build  these  in  one  or  two  rows  of  four  or  more, 
the  lower  tier  on  a  shelf  raised  a  foot  above  ground,  and  the 
flat  top  of  this  tier  forming  the  bottom  of  the  upper.  In  that 
case  the  higher  row  should  have  a  sharply  sloping  cover,  to  pre- 
vent birds  perching  on  top.  In  this  way,  as  each  row  is  lifted, 
all  the  contents  drop  out.  By  limewashing  the  boxes  regularly, 
and  replacement  of  the  nesting  material,  straw,  or  hay,  or  chaff. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        161 

there  should  be  little  trouble.  In  larger  houses  an  excellent 
plan  is  to  have  a  separate  laying  closet  or  compartment,  so  that 
the  hens  may  be  undisturbed,  as  they  prefer  quietude.  Where 
that  cannot  be  carried  out,  the  nests  should  be  placed  on  the 
darker  side  of  the  house.  In  some  portable  houses  a  row  of  nests 
is  fixed  on  the  outside,  with  access  for  fowls  from  inside.  The 
eggs  are  collected  from  the  boxes  by  opening  a  covered  lid.  That 
is  a  satisfactory  arrangement,  provided  the  bottom  board  is 
hinged  so  that  when  unfastened  cleaning  is  facilitated. 
Trap  nests  are  dealt  with  in  Chapter  XXI. 

Draining. — Above  I  have  dealt  with  the  principles  applicable 
to  every  form  of  poultry  house.  Before  describing  the  different 
types  of  such  houses,  there  is  one  point  of  considerable  impor- 
tance— namely,  that  the  natural  drainage  should  always  be 
from,  and  not  to,  the  building,  in  order  that  the  floor  and  sur- 
rounding ground  shall  be  dr5^  As  a  question  of  shelter  and 
protection,  a  hollow  is  a  desii'able  location;  but  in  wet  weather 
drainage  is  towards  the  centre  of  the  depression,  which  results 
in  slopp3"  soil  outside,  and  dampness  inside,  the  house,  to  the 
discomfort  of  the  birds.  Even  where  the  position  is  a  natural 
slope  I  have  seen  water  running  under  or  into  the  fowl  house, 
whereas  by  a  little  forethought  that  could  have  been  avoided. 
For  permanent  and  temporary  and  portable  poultry  houses  alike 
this  is  a  question  of  importance.  On  level  fields  there  is  usually 
some  choice  in  selection  of  location.  The  greatest  danger  is  in 
low-l}ang  valley  lands,  where  are  watercourses,  as  there  in  flood 
time  water  rises  through  the  soil,  as  I  have  learnt  by  experience. 

In  building  a  large  or  fixed  house  for  anj'^  purpose,  it  is  a  wise 
precaution  to  put  in  a  series  of  drain-pipes  leading  from  the 
building.  Gutters  should  be  fitted  to  the  roofs,  with  connecting 
pipes  well  down  into  the  earth,  unless  rain-water  tanks  are  used. 
Small  portable  huts  cannot  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 
In  these  the  roof  should  project  sufficiently  to  prevent  water 
falling  on  to  the  walls. 

Original  Forms  of  Poultry  Houses. — Having  stated  what  are 
the  recognized  principles  that  should  be  adopted  to  ail  forms 
of  poultry  houses,  consideration  may  be  given  to  the  applica- 
tion of  these  jDrinciples.  Before  doing  so,  however,  mention 
must  be  made  of  the  older  tj'pe  of  roosting-places  for  hens,  still 
to  be  met  with  m  other  countries  as  well  as  our  own.  As  a  rule 
these  occupy  a  section  of  the  farm  buildings.  It  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  for  modern  purposes  these  are  unsatisfactory 
in  the  extreme,  in  that  they  are  usualty  small,  dark,  and  ill- 

11 


102  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

ventilated,  and  generally  are  lacking  in  hygienic  conditions. 
So  long  as  the  relative  number  of  inmates  is  small  and  the  poultry 
are  but  a  side-line  in  which  the  economic  aspect  is  disregarded, 
not  much  harm  is  done.  The  danger  line  is  passed  when  an 
attempt  is  made  to  increase  the  fowls  beyond  the  capacity 
available  for  their  accommodation.  Better  by  far  under  these 
conditions,  and  until  other  arrangements  are  made,  such  as 
introduction  of  portable  houses,  that  the  birds  find  quarters  in 
cart  or  other  sheds,  where  at  least  they  will  have  ample  air 
space,  althoiigh  the  system  is  not  conducive  to  general  cleanli- 
ness. 

A  very  common  but  none  the  less  erroneous  idea  has  been 
that,  to  induce  fecundity,  warmth  in  dwelling-houses,  cattle, 
and  horses,  is  helpful.  An  old  writer  (Gervasse  IMarkham)  in 
1660  suggested  that  the  hen  house  should  be  near  some  kitchen, 
brewhouse,  or  kiln,  which  idea  has  permeated  the  minds  of 
people  ever  since. 

Formerly  such  methods  were  very  general  in  the  United 
Kingdom ;  and  although  they  are  still  adopted  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  the  more  remote  areas,  a  great  change  has  taken  place 
in  that  respect.  Upon  the  Continent  of  Europe  the  practice 
is  still  largely  maintained,  often  in  a  very  extreme  form,  especially 
where  holdings  are  small  and  the  cattle  sheds  ill-ventilated. 
In  some  cases  a  space  is  boarded  off  for  the  fowls  at  one  end  of 
the  byre ;  in  others  the  hen  quarters  are  overhead,  with  a  ladder 
entrance  from  the  outside.  Again  it  may  be  stated  that  when 
the  number  kept  is  small  not  much  harm  results;  but  for  ex- 
tended operations  the  system  is  bad  in  the  extreme,  and  the 
sooner  it  is  brought  to  an  end  the  better. 

Size  of  Houses. — The  question  of  amount  of  space  to  be 
allocated  to  each  fowl  is  better  \inderstood  than  was  formerly 
the  case.  That  has  already  been  dealt  with  above  under  the 
head  of  Ventilation.  What  we  have  now  to  consider  is  the  actual 
size,  with  which  is  involved  the  number  of  inmates.  At  the 
present  time  there  is  a  strong  tendency  in  the  direction  of  large 
houses,  accommodating  from,  say,  a  hundred  to  a  thousand  hens, 
for  the  reason  that  the  capital  expenditure  ])er  unit  is  less,  as 
also  is  the  labour  involved,  although  compensated  by  reduc- 
tion of  the  number  of  eggs  produced.  At  one  period  these 
big  buildings  were  made  square,  or  nearly  so,  which  meant 
massing  the  birds  when  at  roost.  The  modern  type  is  long 
and  narrow,  which  is  a  distinct  improvement  for  reasons 
stated  below;  in  fact,  were  it  not  for  the  question  of  outside 
runs,  not  much  objection  could  be  raised  to  poultry  houses  of 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        163 

this  class  when  properl}'  built,  and  the  perches  are  ranged  at 
the  back  along  the  entire  length.  By  that  arrangement  all 
massing  is  avoided,  as  are  the  risks  of  overcrowchng. 

Two  important  questions  arise  for  consideration.  Experience 
shows  that  there  is  a  greater  tendency  to  chsease  when  birds  are 
housed  in  large  numbers.  Should  any  inmate  be  affected  in  this 
way,  it  will  probably  spread  to  a  much  greater  extent  if  there 
are,  say,  a  couple  of  hundred  hens  in  the  same  house,  than  if 
divided  into  flocks  of  twenty-five  and  scattered  widety  over  the 
ground.  Epidemics  are  seldom  discerned  until  a  considerable 
number  of  birds  are  affected. 

The  other  question  concerns  productiveness.  Observations 
at  home  and  abroad  have  shown  that  the  fecundity  of  hens 
when  massed  in  large  numbers  is  distinctly  lower  than  when  they 
are  divided  into  smaller  flocks.  1  have  no  doubt  that  this  result 
to  some  extent  arises  from  the  fact  that  more  careful  selection 
can  be  made  when  birds  are  in  smaller  numbers,  because  the 
individuals  are  under  closer  observation.  That  does  not,  how- 
ever, entirely  solve  the  problem.  Investigations  have  shown 
the  importance  of  air,  or,  rather,  the  oxygen  in  the  atmosphere, 
to  every  form  of  animal  life,  and  that  would  appear  to  offer  an  ex- 
planation why  birds  massed  in  large  numbers  jaeld  a  smaller 
average  of  eggs  than  if  they  are  divided  into  moderate-sized  flocks. 
To  some  extent  this  influence  is  minimized  in  the  long,  narrow 
houses.  If,  however,  we  take  a  house  holchng  500  hens,  built 
entirely  or  nearly  square,  it  is  at  once  evident  that  the  great  bulk 
of  the  birds  when  at  roost  cannot  obtain  absolutely  fresh  air; 
in  fact,  all  those  in  the  centre  of  the  flock,  when  they  are  on  the 
perches,  can  only  obtain  air  that  has  passed  over  the  bocUes  of 
those  on  the  outer  side,  which  air  is  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent 
contaminated.  When  birds  are  in  small  houses  accommodating 
flocks  of,  say,  twent5"-five  each,  then,  by  a  proper  arrangement 
of  the  perches,  nearly  every  bird  can  receive  air  that  is  uncon- 
taminated.  The  birds  are,  during  the  winter  season  at  any  rate, 
at  roost  more  than  half  of  the  twentj-four  hours,  and  it  is  evident 
how  important  is  this  question.  To  attain  the  maximum  of 
production,  therefore,  small  flocks  are  preferable.  It  is,  how- 
ever, entiiely  a  question  of  margin  between  expenditure  and 
value  of  returns. 

Shape  of  Houses. — The  cubic  capacity  of  houses  in  relation 
to  the  inmates  has  already  been  given.  In  this  direction  another 
question  arises — namely,  that  with  an  increase  in  the  number 
of  inmates  there  should  be  an  advance  pro  rata  of  the  air  space. 
Ten  cubic  feet   per  unit  may  be  regarded  as  the  minimum  in 


164  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

small  houses  where  no  scratching  shed  is  provided.  As  the 
size  of  building  and  number  of  inmates  increase,  so  must  the 
capacity  be  enlarged,  both  by  extended  floor  space  and  elevation 
of  the  roof.  So  far  as  the  latter  is  concerned,  that  is  essential 
to  effective  circulation  of  the  air.  A  6-foot  gable  is  high  enough 
for  twenty-five  hens,  whereas  for  a  couple  of  hundred  8  or  9  feet 
is  required.  Generally  speaking,  additional  space  for  scratching 
should,  in  smaller  buildings,  be  equal  to  what  would  be  pro^^ded 
for  roosting,  plus  the  margin  beyond  that  actually  occupied  by 
perches.  By  this  is  meant  that,  if  in  an  ordinary  non-scratching 
house  the  floor  space  was  equal  to  2  square  feet  per  inmate,  of 
which  half  would  be  covered  by  the  perches,  then  for  a  scratching- 
shed  house  4  square  feet  of  floor  should  be  pro\ided  for  each 
inmate.  In  larger  scratching  sheds  there  should  be  the  same 
floor  accommodation  with  a  higher  roof,  and  the  cubic  capacity'' 
may  be  advanced  to  30  square  feet  per  bird.  Overcrowding 
never  pays. 

The  shape,  therefore,  of  the  house  needs  consideration  in  view 
of  what  has  been  stated.  As  a  general  principle,  an  oblong 
shape  as  a  rule  is  joreferable  to  any  other,  the  greater  length 
forming  front  and  back,  and  the  shorter  what  may  be  regarded 
as  ends.  In  this  manner  a  maximum  amount  of  light  and 
ventilation  will  be  secured.  A  square  building  offers  no  objec- 
tions so  long  as  the  depth,  in  relation  to  the  height  of  roof,  at 
the  front  does  not  prevent  full  plaj^  of  sunlight  to  the  back, 
and  also  circulation  of  the  air.  One  house  which  I  have  used 
with  great  success  was  10  feet  square  (Plate  VI.),  and  it  conformed 
to  what  has  been  stated  A  deep  house  with  a  narrow  front  is 
undesirable,  however  well  it  may  be  designed  and  arranged. 
For  the  same  reasons  a  large  square  house,  or  one  deeper  than 
it  is  long,  should  not  be  erected.  I  have  seen  manj^  forms  of 
poultry  houses,  in  some  of  which  great  ingenuity  has  been 
expended,  square,  oblong,  hexagonal,  and  octagonal,  the  last- 
named  divided  into  compartments  with  corresjDonding  runs, 
the  prime  object  of  which  was  economy  of  space  and  labour. 
With  these  half  the  inner  compartments  and  outer  yards  could 
receive  no  direct  sunlight.  Even  where  an  attempt  was  made 
to  remedy  this  defect  by  roof  lights  and  ventilators,  the  result 
was  unsatisfactory,  whilst  the  permanency  of  the  structure 
generally  involved  ultimate  trouble  by  tainting  of  the  runs. 
Architectural  fantasies  in  this  manner  are  responsible  for  many 
"  has  beens  "  in  poultry  husbandry.  Much  superior  in  every 
way  are  the  long-range  poultry  houses,  varying  in  depth,  accord- 
ing to  the  size,  from  5  to  20  feet,  as  indicated  below.     What 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING 


165 


requkes  to  be  emphasized  again  is  that  as  the  depth  of  house  from 
back  to  front  is  increased  so  mitst  the  frontal  elevation.  A  house 
10  feet  deep  will  require  a  7-foot  front ;  one  20  feet  deep  should 
be  9  or  10  feet  high  in  front. 

For  portable  houses  to  stand  in  the  open  fields,  the  best  type 
are  those  with  gabled  roofs,  described  later,  as  these  are  less 
affected  by  winds,  and  there  is  less  danger  of  being  blown  over. 
In  larger  structures  that  are  of  a  more  permanent  form,  the 
sloping  or  shed  roof  is  to  be  preferred,  the  front  facing  southwards, 
or  as  near  that  position  as  possible.  Such  erections,  however, 
offer  a  greater  surface  to  the  wind,  by  which  the  inside  temperature 
may  be  affected  considerably.     Therefore,  in  selection  of  position. 


Fig.  9. — Farmkks'  Poultry  House. 


it  is  important  to  take  advantage  of  whatever  natural  shelter 
is  available.  Some  excellent  forms  of  poultry  houses  are  built 
with  a  double-pitched  roof,  uneven  on  the  two  sides,  in  which 
case  the  front  slope  should  be  the  shorter,  and  not  carried  down 
to  the  same  degree  as  at  the  back.  Experience  has  shown  that 
the  low-front  roofed  building  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  when  the 
highest  slope  is  frontal. 

Portable  Poultry  Houses. — Regarding  equipment  of  farms  in 
the  first  place,  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  form  most 
suited  to  these  conditions  is  that  which  can  be  moved  about 
from  place  to  place  as  occasion  requires,  and  made  to  fit  in  with 
the  rotation  of  crops.  Such  houses  can  be  placed  out  on  grass 
or  arable  land,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  with  great 


160 


POULTP.Y  HUSBANDRY 


advantage  to  the  farmer,  as  the  fowls  clean  the  land  and  enrich 
it  by  their  manure.  It  has  been  found  that  by  the  adoption 
of  the  plan  here  advocated  the  cash  gain  is  very  considerable. 
Food  which  otherwise  would  be  wasted  is  obtained  by  the  fowls, 
and  they  can  thus  be  fed  much  more  cheaply  than  if  kept  on  one 
place  or  in  confinement,  whilst  the  advantage  in  giving  them 
fresh  ground  is  very  manifest.  Upon  fields  which  arc  down  for 
hay  it  is  not  necessary  to  remove  the  poultry  until  about  ten 


Fig.  10. — roRTABLE  TuuLTRY  House  wrra  Outside  Nests. 


weeks  prior  to  cutting,  which  avoids  all  danger  of  the  grass 
becoming  trodden,  and  the  crop  comes  strong  and  in  good  con- 
dition. On  arable  faims  they  can  be  placed  out  before  the  plant 
appears,  when  it  is  well  up,  and  after  harvest.  On  dairy  farms 
it  is  found  that  fowls  do  not  interfere  with  the  cattle,  or  the  cattle 
with  the  fowls,  and  the  maintenance  of  several  hundred  head 
of  pf)ultry  need  not  necessitate  the  reduction  in  number  of  the 
cows  on  a  large  dairy  farm.  On  a  farm  largely  devoted  to  grain 
and  roots,  the  houses  can  be  placed  in  corners  of  the  fields  where 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING 


167 


grain  or  roots  are  gj-owing ;  and  though  for  a  yard  or  two  around 
the  ground  is  bared,  that  is  all  the  damage  Avhich  results.  The 
birds  wander  in  and  out  among  the  grain  stalks  and  growing 
roots  without  injuring  them,  and  render  service  in  other  waj'S. 
It  is  commonly  thought  that  fowls  injure  growing  crops,  l)ut 
experience  has  proved  that,  after  the  plants  are  6  inches  above 
ground,  there  is  no  risk  whatever  in  so  doing,  and  great  good 
results  from  the  adoption  of  this  plan.  On  fruit  grounds  and  in 
hop  gardens  the  benefit  is  even  more  apparent. 

Where  the  house  is  not  required  to  be  moved  more  than  once 
or  twice  in  the  year,  the  form  shown  in  Plate  VI.  can  be  adoj)ted, 
as  the  labour  of  taking  the  erection  down  and  re-erecting  is 


^^i^^^ 

^^^^^^H 

^BIk^^' 

f  ■ 

1 

Fig.  11. — Ideal  Toultry  House  :  Fkont  View,  lowered. 


small.  Por  this  purpose  it  is  built  in  sections  and  bolted  to- 
gether. Under  these  conditions  wheels  are  not  required,  and 
it  is  used  without  a  floor.  Upon  grass-land,  the  plant  in  and 
immediately  contiguous  to  the  house  would  be  injured,  if  not 
killed,  and  consequently  this  house  is  preferred  on  arable  farms. 
On  grass-land  the  work  of  removal  is  greatly  facilitated  if  wheels 
are  fitted,  so  that  labour  is  minimized.  In  that  case  the  addi- 
tional cost  is  speedily  saved.  Fig.  9  represents  the  ordinary 
form  of  poultry  house  upon  wheels,  fitted  with  a  wooden  floor. 
For  reasons  which  have  been  fully  explained,  it  is  much  better 
that  the  ground  shoidd  be  the  floor.  If  removal  takes  place 
once  or  twice  a  week,  no  injury  to  the  grass  results,  and  the 
manure  is  well  distributed. 


168 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


With  a  view  to  avoid  the  use  of  wooden  floors  and  to  retain 
the  mobility  of  poultry  houses,  methods  have  been  introduced 
of  raising  them  upon  their  wheels  for  removal,  and  of  lowering 
again  when  in  position.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  in 
this  direction  to  introduce  such  a  mechanism,  but  the  result 
has  not  been  wholly  satisfactory,  due  to  the  increased  strain 
upon  the  house  and  the  labour  of  removal.  As  a  consequence, 
up  to  the  present  the  ordinary  type  upon  four  wheels  and  with 
a  wooden  floor  is  preferred.  Figs.  11  and  12  show  a  hoitse  upon 
three  wheels,  which  by  a  powerful  lever  arm,  shown  at  the  side 
of  raised  house,  it  is  lifted  up  and  fixed.  The  reverse  action 
restores  it  to  the  ordinary  position,  when  the  wheels  can  easily 


Fig.  12. — Ideal  Poultry  House  :  Back  View,  raised. 


be  taken  off  by  removal  of  the  pins,  and  thus  one  set  of  wheels 
be  used  for  several  houses.  In  experience,  however,  I  have 
found  that,  unless  the  wheels  are  large,  these  houses  do  not  travel 
well  on  rough  ground,  which  is  a  question  of  considerable  impor- 
tance.  There  is  abundant  scope  for  inventiveness  in  this  direction. 

Many  of  the  ordinary  portable  houses  are  insufficiently  venti- 
lated. The  upper  half  of  one  side  should  be  wire-netted.  In 
Fig.  13  it  will  be  seen  that  a  shutter  is  provided,  which  is 
made  to  slide  up  and  down.  Whilst  occasionally  in  wet  weather 
that  may  be  useful,  the  less  it  is  utilized  the  better. 

Colony  Houses. — Where  this  system  of  poultry  husbandi-y  is 
adopted,  removal  of  the  house  is  not  requisite  more  than  once 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        169 


Fig.  13. — Tenanix   1 


.iU    -iiUTTKRS. 


Fig.  li. — CiNADiAK  Apex  Colony  Houses 


170 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


a  year.  As  a  consequence  wheels  need  not  be  employed.  Under 
such  conditions  a  larger  building  on  the  scratching  -  shed 
principle  is  to  be  commended.  It  should  be  built  in  sections  and 
bolted  together,  by  which  means  removal  is  facilitated,  and 
does  not  involve  a  great  amount  of  labour.  Hovises  to  be  used 
in  this  manner  should  be  of  medium  size,  holding,  say,  twenty- 
five  birds,  and  in  all  cases  be  open-fronted.  One  of  the  best 
forms  is  that  shown  in  Plate  VI.  Various  other  types  are  illus- 
trated, from  which  selection  can  be  made.  Reference  may  also 
be  made  to  the  description  given  in  Chapter  VIII.  of  the  colonj' 
method  adopted  at  King's  Langlcy,  where  groups  of  small  houses 
or  coops  are  used,  one  advantage  of  which  is  that  these  can  be 
removed  easily. 

Scratching-Shed     Houses. — Nearly    all    modern    houses    of    a 
larger  size  for  fowls,  with  which   I  am  acquainted,  save  such  as 


Fig.  15.— Large  Scratching-Shed  House:  Front  Elevation. 


are  intended  to  be  frequently  moved,  are  being  built  on  what 
is  known  as  the  scratching-shed  principle,  which  is  capable 
of  great  extension.  The  objects  in  view  are  twofold:  First,  that 
the  birds  may  have  shelter  in  unfavourable  weather,  and,  if 
necessary,  be  kept  entirely  under  cover;  and,  second,  that  they 
may  be  induced  to  take  abundant  exercise,  as  food  is  supplied 
in  litter  and  has  to  be  worked  for  by  scratching.  The  latter  of 
these  is  the  more  important.  Fowls  on  range — that  is,  at  liberty 
— do  not  require  any  such  provision  so  far  as  exercise  is  con- 
cerned, for,  if  not  overfed,  they  will  be  busily  engaged  all  the 
day  long  seeking  for  food,  and  thus  kce])  their  organs  in  activity. 
A  larger  house,  in  the  absence  of  natural  shelter,  is  useful  on  that 
account.  When  kept  under  restricted  (conditions,  the  tendency 
is  towards  a  lethargic  habit  of  body,  as  a  consequence  of  which. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        173 

especially  when  feeding  is  abundant,  fatty  deposits  accumulate 
on  the  muscles  and  organs,  which  tend  to  reduction  of  productive- 
ness, and  often  lead  to  liver  and  other  digestive  troubles.  In- 
troduction of  this  system  has  undoubtedly  made  possible  a 
great  increase  of  poultry-keeping  on  what  are  moderately  in- 
tensive lines.  Briefly  stated,  intensification  in  any  form  would 
be  practically  impossible  except  for  this  method. 

Scratching  sheds  are  of  many  forms,  but  agree  in  essential 
details.  One  of  the  earlier  types  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  15.  This 
consisted  of  a  building  of  which  the  illustration  represents  half, 
each  section  being  18  feet  long  by  10  feet  deep,  the  front  7  feet 
6  inches  high,  sloping  to  5  feet  at  the  back,  thus  obtaining  all 
the  sunshine  possible.  It  included  a  roosting  and  laying  com- 
partment 8  feet  by  10  feet,  and  the  scratching  shed  10  feet 
square,  the  partition  and  door  solid,  except  the  upper  part  of 
the  former,  which  was  netted.  The  front  of  the  roosting  com- 
partment was  solid  except  for  the  window,  which  was  made  to 
open,  and  that  of  the  scratching-shed  section  wire-netted.  If 
now  building  such  a  house,  I  should  make  all  the  front  netted 
and  entirely  dispense  with  the  partition.  Experience  has  shown 
that  in  the  United  Kingdom,  for  the  number  of  inmates,  twenty- 
five,  the  size  was  greater  than  was  necessary.  It  was,  however, 
built  on  American  lines.  In  that  country,  where  the  winters 
are  much  more  severe  than  with  us,  frequently  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  fowls  entirely  under  cover  for  several  weeks  together, 
in  which  case  a  greater  amount  of  shelter  is  warranted.  There- 
fore, as  a  protection  against  snowdrifts,  the  plan  in  many 
instances  is  adopted  of  having  a  frame  upon  which  is  stretched 
fine  glazed  muslin  to  fit  behind  the  netting.  When  not  in  use, 
it  is  hung  up  against  the  roof  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way.  In 
this  country  such  an  arrangement  is  needless.  I  came  across 
several  plants  in  America  where  the  birds  were  kept  in  houses 
of  this  class  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  there  is  a 
tendency  to  that  form  of  intensification  in  our  own  country  at 
the  time  of  writing.  That  was  not,  however,  carried  out  with 
the  houses  named.  Outside  was,  first,  an  enclosed  gravel  run  to 
each  section,  20  feet  long  by  18  feet  wide,  in  which  the  birds  spent 
most  of  their  time,  and,  second,  a  single  grass  run  for  the  two 
lots,  100  feet  long,  by  36  feet  wide — that  is,  the  width  of  the  two 
sections,  the  inmates  of  each  vising  it  alternately.  The  great 
advantage  of  the  gravel  run  was  that,  as  the  bulk  of  the  manure 
fell  there  or  hiside  the  house,  it  could  be  removed  in  the  former 
by  daily  sweeping,  the  labour  of  which  was  more  than  com- 
pensated by  the  manure  thus   gathered.     As  a  portion  was 


174  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

carried  by  rain  into  the  gravel,  it  was  found  necessary  to  remove 
and  replace  the  latter  from  time  to  time.  The  material  could, 
however,  he  used  again  when  exposed  for  a  time  to  the  weather, 
and  thus  washed  clean.  In  spite  of  all  that  was  done  by  crop- 
ping and  i)lanting  fruit-trees,  the  grass  in  the  outer  run  became 
very  rank,  and  the  conclusion  was  reached  that  such  a  method 
could  alone  be  successful  if  applied  on  arable  or  dug  land,  for 
which  purpose  at  least  doul)le  runs,  one  back  and  the  other 
front,  would  be  necessary  to  provide  an  alternation. 

Another  form  which  was  found  superior  is  shown  in  Plate  VI. 
This  was  a  single  house,  10  feet  square,  of  the  same  elevation 
as  the  other,  placed  in  a  run  of  a  quarter  of  an  acre,  with  gravel 
around,  but  no  enclosed  yard.  Inside  at  the  back  was  a  laying 
compartment  for  trap-nesting,  and  the  perches.  The  front  was 
netted.  The  cost  of  single  houses  is  a  little  more,  but  the 
advantages  of  mobility  fully  compensate.  Such  was  one  of 
the  best  forms  I  have  used. 

The  Litter. — An  essential  factor  in  these  houses  is  that  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  floor  space,  all  except  that  under  the 
perches,  is  thickly  littered  with  straw  cut  into  short  lengths, 
or  chaff,  or  peat  moss,  or  any  other  friable  material  which  will 
not  bind  orbed  hard.  The  deeper  this  is,  the  better.  What  it 
shall  consist  of  is  largely  a  question  of  cost.  In  the  coin  States 
of  America  I  have  seen  great  stacks  of  straw  burning  because  it 
was  of  no  local  value,  and  not  worth  the  cost  of  transportation 
over  long  distances.  With  us  it  is  too  expensive  as  a  general 
rule.  Thus  chaff  or  peat  moss  are  usually  employed.  On  this  the 
grain  fed  is  thro^^^l.  As  the  birds  commence  to  scratch,  it  is 
buried  or  can  be  raked  in.  Every  time  they  use  their  claws  to 
uncover  one  grain,  they  cover  up  the  rest,  and  in  this  manner 
are  exercising  themselves  all  the  time.  That  is,  in  brief,  the 
virtue  of  the  system — namely,  working  for  their  food  and 
keeping  their  muscles  and  organs  in  good  order.  In  districts 
where  sand  is  plentiful  that  material  may  be  used,  in  which  case 
the  grain  should  be  buried  more  deeply.  As  a  rule  a  thick  bed 
of  litter  lasts  several  months,  if  dug  over  regularly,  and  then 
forms  a  valuable  manure. 

Open-Front  Houses. — Reference  has  previously  been  made  to 
the  important  part  which  oxygen  plays  in  connection  with  the 
animal  frame.  A  sufficient  supply  of  that  element  is  essential 
to  productiveness.  Warmth  may  be  a  stimulus  to  activity  of 
the  egg  organs,  but  tends  to  increase  the  fatty  deposits  on  the 
body,  and  its  effect  is  transient.      Even  in  America,  where  the 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        175 

climate  is  more  extreme  than  with  us,  it  has  been  found  that 
winter  egg  production  depends  more  upon  oxygen,  phis  vigour 
of  constitution,  than  anything  else.  Lack  of  oxygen  and  of 
exercise  means  lessened  digestive  power,  and  therefore  waste  of 
food. 

For  these  reasons  what  are  known  as  open-fronted  houses 
are  becoming  more  general.  Several  types  are  shown  in  the 
illustrations.  These  vary  considerably  in  size  and  design,  but 
the  same  principles  should  be  applied  in  all  cases.  The  front 
is  made  entirely  of  wire  netting  for  preference,  save  that  it  is 
l)oarded  immediately  above  the  ground,  and  is  never  closed 
in  any  way  winter  or  summer,  the  perches  being  placed  at  the 
back.  When  this  system  is  adopted,  the  back,  ends,  and  roof, 
must  be  substantial  anel  air-tight.  As  a  result  there  is  a  free 
circulation  of  air  without  draught.  When  a  gale  is  blowing 
if  we  enter  a  shallow  doorway  the  air  rushes  past,  and  does 
not  disturb  the  atmosphere  in  which  we  are  standing,  so  that 
a  pipe  can  be  lit  without  difficulty.  Under  the  conditions 
named,  therefore,  the  foMds  are  quite  comfortable — in  fact,  more 
so  than  when  in  close  buildings.  It  is  found  that  on  the  coldest 
night  frost  does  not  reach  them,  and  there  is  no  condensation  of 
vapour  on  the  walls.  The  body  feathers  afford  all  protection 
required.  It  is  damp  which  causes  trouble,  and,  when  combined 
with  low  temperature,  frosted  combs,  chills,  etc.,  are  caused, 
which  are  practically  unknown  in  open-fronted  houses.  Some- 
times shutters  are  used  for  very  cold  weather,  due  to  the  fear- 
fulness  of  the  owners  rather  than  the  needs  of  the  birds.  Save 
as  a  protection  against  rain,  these  are  a  useless  expense.  In  this 
tj'pe  of  building  windows  are  not  required. 

When  the  open-front  houses  were  introdiiced  in  America, 
dread  as  to  the  effect  of  low  temperature  led  to  the  use  of  curtain 
screens,  either  behind  the  wire  netting  at  the  front,  as  elescribed 
above,  or  around  the  perches.  Professor  W.  R.  Graham,  of  the 
Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Guelph,  states  that,  after  careful 
tests  made  with  warmed  buildings,  with  double-walleel  houses 
having  curtains  before  the  perches,  and  also  6  feet  away  next 
to  the  wire  netting,  he  had  found  that  the  one-ply  board  houses 
with  netted  fronts  had  given  the  best  results  as  to  the  number 
of  eggs  produced  in  winter,  of  fertility,  and  vigour  of  germs. 
Whatever  may  be  the  case  across  the  Atlantic,  curtain  fronts 
are  useless  on  this  side.  One  exception  ma}'  be  made — namely, 
that  in  a  very  hot  summer  to  hang  green  holland  behind  the 
wire  netting  will  be  well  worth  the  cost,  keeping  the  interior 
cool  at  a  time  when  the  heat  is  very  trying. 


176  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Range  Houses. — Ever  since  I  have  taken  any  interest  in 
poultry  Im.sbandry  there  has  been  periodic,  if  not  constant, 
striving  for  the  successful  adoption  of  long-range  houses,  of 
which  there  are  many  forms.  Some  of  these  are  duplications 
of  compartments  for  a  lesser  or  greater  number  of  fowls,  with 
corresponding  runs  outside,  varying  from  a  hundred  to  the  thou- 
sand unit  flocks  in  one  great  but  long  mass.  WTiere  the  weak- 
ness lies  is  not  in  the  house  itself,  but  by  the  accumulation  of 
manurial  elements  on  the  surrounding  land,  and  the  fact  that 
change  of  environment  is  practically  impossible.  Personally  I 
should  never  build  again  a  range  house. 

One  of  the  best  forms  I  have  seen  was  that  designed  and 
constructed  by  Mr.  W.  Reynolds,  of  Leigh  Xook,  Street,  Somer- 
set, upon  the  scratching-shed  principle,  and  with  double  runs. 
These  have  been  designed  to  accommodate  a  flock  of  200  pullets, 
with  the  double  purpose  of  obtaining  winter  eggs  and  selecting 
by  recording  nests  the  best  layers  for  the  following  breeding 
season.  The  idea  was  to  lessen  as  much  as  possible  the  labour 
involved  in  attending  to  such  a  large  number.  The  range 
(Fig.  16)  consists  of  eight  sheds,  each  14  feet  6  inches  by 
12  feet  6  inches  (including  the  passage,  the  space  underneath 
which  is  used  by  the  fowls),  with  a  food  store,  etc.,  at  one  end. 
A  raised  passage,  18  inches  above-ground,  runs  the  entire  length, 
with  doors  on  one  side  leading  to  each  of  the  front  runs,  and  on 
the  other  to  the  sheds.  Once  in  the  passage,  which  has  a  door 
at  either  end,  the  soft  food  can  be  placed  in  the  feeding-troughs, 
the  water  vessels  cleaned  and  refilled,  the  recording  nests 
examined,  and  the  trap  to  either  front  or  back  runs  opened  or 
closed  by  cords,  without  being  hindered  by  a  single  door.  In  the 
house  shown  are  nine  trap  nests,  but  in  four  out  of  the  eight 
houses  there  are  only  eight  nests,  a  broody-coop  taking  the  place 
of  the  missing  one.  The  floor  of  the  sheds  is  raised  with  road 
earth  3  inches  above  the  surrounding  ground-level,  and  during 
the  whole  winter  is  kept  liberally  supplied  with  litter — i.e., 
waste  and  broken  straw,  chaff,  etc.,  from  threshing  machines. 
In  very  cold  or  wet  weather  the  pullets  are  entirely  confined  to 
their  houses,  and  two  half-feeds  of  grain  are  fed  amongst  the 
litter.  The  night  perch  is  at  the  back,  with  a  dropping-board 
beneath. 

The  passage  is  divided  from  each  shed,  and  from  the  front  runs, 
by  wire  netting.  In  very  bad  driving  wet  or  cold  weather, 
wind  shutters,  formed  of  canvas  or  battens,  are  filled  in  each 
panel  of  the  front  against  the  wire  netting.  Part  of  the  front 
slope  of  roof  has  glazed  lights  fitted,  which  can  be  opened  or 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        177 

altogether  taken  away.    The  houses  Benefit  thus  in  winter  from 
the  sun,  and  in  very  hot  weather  there  is  ample  ventilation. 


The  rest  of  the  roof,  together  with  the  back  and  two  ends,  are 
formed  of  tongued  boarding  covered  with  good  roofing  felt, 
thus  making  the  houses  draught -proof.     It  will  be  seen  that 

12 


178  l^OULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

each  house  has  two  runs,  the  front  ones  having  two  orchard 
trees  in  each,  and  at  the  back,  where  the  houses  afford  some  shade, 
there  is  only  one. 

The  first  length  (12  feet  6  inches)  of  fence  in  front  is  formed 
into  a  gate,  and  by  opening  all  of  these  back  on  to  the  runs,  even 
if  in  use,  and  closing  the  traps,  all  the  birds  are  secure,  and  a 
cart  or  waggon  can  pass  along  the  front  to  deliver  road  earth  or 
litter,  and  to  collect  manure  or  tainted  earth. 

Small  Poultry  House. — In  these  days  houses  of  a  fairly  suitable 
class  for  poultry  can  be  purchased  at  very  low  prices,  due  to 
the  numbers  that  are  manufactured  to  one  pattern.     8o  long 
as  these,  or  in  fact  any,  conform  to  the  principles  already  laid 
down,  they  can  be  commended.     The  same  is  true  of  such  as  are 
built  at  home.     Cheapness  may  be  dearly  purchased,  however, 
if  the  material  or  construction  be  deficient  or  unsuitable,  or  if 
the  conditions  are  unfavourable  for  the  inmates.     As  a  rule 
fowls  and,  it  may  be    added,  other  classes   of    poultry  should 
not  be  kept  in  gardens  or  upon  very  small  spaces;  there  should 
be  a  reasonable   amoimt  of  cover  in  order  to    afford  protection 
during   unfavourable  weather.      A   very  excellent  arrangement 
is,  in   the   case  of  a  house  of  the   usual   pattern — say,  5  feet 
square,  or  6  feet  by  5  feet — to  make  an  extension  of  the  roof 
covering  the   run  for  8  or  10  feet  beyond  the  house.     Such  a 
construction  is  not  onl}^  useful  in  giving  shelter,  but  also,  when 
in   a  garden,  if  netted  round,  during  periods  of  the  year  when 
the  birds  cannot  be  given  any  liberty  they  may  be  kept  there 
all  the  time.     Under  such  conditions  the  run  should  be  laid 
down  in  gravel,  which  can  be  swept  regularly  so  as  to  remove 
a  large  part  of  the  manure;  or  in  sand,  to  be  dug  over  occasion- 
ally; or  in  fine  ashes.     The  last  named,  however,  will  require 
to  be  renewed  once  every  three  or  four  months.     vSometimes 
very  elaborate  and  ornate  poultry-houses  are  provided  in  this 
way,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  owners  wish  for  a  place  in 
keeping  with  the  surroundings.     To  that  there  can  be  no  objec- 
tion, so  long  as  the  essential  principles  laid  down  are  observed. 
To  sacrifice  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  inmates  for  appearance' 
sake  is  undesirable,  and  also  unnecessar3\     On  the  other  hand, 
to  please  the  eye  is  generally  worth  the  doing.    It  is  not  the  pala- 
tial or  rough  structure  which  determines  the  comfort  and  health 
of  the  inmates,  but  whether  it  insures  the  protection  desired, 
combined   with   hygienic   conditions.     Such   dweUings   may   be 
made  very  inexpensively.     Sugar  casks,  piano  cases,  and  large 
boxes,  can  be  turned  into  useful  jwultry  huts  by  the  expenditure 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        179 

of  a  little  time  and  ingenuity.  Even  if  new  or  other  timber  has 
to  be  purchased  for  the  purpose,  the  cost  is  comparatively  small, 
and  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  pleasure  obtainable  in  the 
execution  of  the  work.  Where  the  amount  of  ground  space  is 
very  restricted,  a  plan  often  adopted  is  to  raise  the  floor  of  the 
house  so  as  to  provide  shelter  below,  and  to  increase  the  size  of 
run.  This  arrangement  undoubtedly  has  the  effect  of  making  the 
inside  colder  in  winter.  That,  however,  may  be  minimized  by 
keeping  the  boards  covered  with  peat  moss  or  other  litter.  If 
such  a  plan  is  adopted  the  floor  should  be  27  inches  above  the 
ground,  and  the  earth  under  the  floor  and  in  the  run  should  be 
raised  higher  than  the  level  outside  to  insure  dryness.  This 
may  be  turned  into  a  scratching  shed;  in  fact,  wherever  fowls 
are  kept  under  strictly  confined  conditions  the  scratching  shed 
is  indispensable  to  a  full  measure  of  success. 

Shelter  Sheds. — Poultry  on  range  do  not  require  any  special 
provision  in  the  shape  of  sheltei'.  They  are  enabled  to  find  that 
for  themselves,  unless  the  place  is  bare  and  exposed.  As  a  rule 
such  birds  are  better  able  to  l^ear  exposure,  in  that  they  have 
been  inured  to  it  by  their  conditions,  and  are  compelled  by 
exercise  to  find  that  warmth  which  arises  from  a  more  rapid 
circulation  of  the  blood.  It  is  where  they  are  compulsorily  luider 
restricted  conditions  that  they  feel  the  effects  of  exposure. 
Where  scratching  sheds  are  used  nothing  more  is  needed.  These 
give  protection  equally  against  wind  and  rain.  One  of  the  best 
arrangements  I  know  is  on  the  breeding  establishment  of  Mr. 
Simon  Hunter,  at  Northallerton,  where  small  spinneys  have  been 
included  in  the  large  runs  used  for  breeding  pens,  in  which 
the  birds  find  shelter  from  excess  of  sunshine,  rain,  or  wind. 
For  obvious  reasons  that  arrangement  is  not  always  possible. 
If  the  fences  are  boarded  up  a  couple  of  feet,  this  acts  as  a  wind- 
break, but  is  not  otherwise  of  much  service.  Shelters  can  be 
improvised  by  hurdles  interlaced  with  furze  or  branches  of  trees. 
These  may  be  made  by  lacing  a  couple  together,  or  building 
square,  in  which  case  four  will  be  required — that  is,  three  sides 
and  one  on  top.  Another  good  form  is  of  wood  with  foiu'  solid 
partitions  set  transversely,  the  fronts  open  so  that  the  birds  can 
go  into  whatever  side  they  desire.  If  built  3  feet  high  and  6  feet 
square,  each  section  will  give  a  ground  space  of  1)  square  feet. 
It  is,  however,  entirely  a  question  of  cost. 

Fences  and  Yards. — Wire  netting  has  been  described  as  a 
necessary  nuisance.  The  less  used  the  better.  Where  per- 
manent   houses  of  any  form  are  employed,  it  is  essential  to 


180  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

separate  the  ruus,  in  order  to  keep  the  birds  to  their  own  location. 
For  this  purpose  the  cheapest  and  best  material  is  wire  netting, 
a  good  quality  of  which  will  last  for  years.  It  is  made  in  rolls 
of  50  yards,  and  can  be  bought  through  the  ordinary  channels 
of  trade  at  reasonable  prices.  Where  chickens  are  likely  to  be 
kejjt  in  these  runs,  the  mesh  should  not  be  larger  than  1  inch ;  but 
for  adult  fowls  an  ordinary  2-inch  mesh  is  to  be  preferred,  and 
offers  the  maximum  of  strength  with  the  minimum  of  expense, 
as  the  smaller  the  mesh  the  greater  the  amount  of  wire  emi^loyed 
and  the  cost  of  making.  The  height  of  fencing  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  class  of  poultry  to  be  enclosed.  Heavy  biids  can 
be  restrained  by  a  3  or  4  foot  fence,  whereas  light,  active  breeds 
can,  if  they  wish,  surmount  8  feet  fencing  without  difliculty. 
My  experience  has  been  that,  provided  that  there  is  a  good 
grass  run  and  the  birds  are  well  emi)loycd,  a  fence  G  feet  high 
is  ample  for  practical  purposes  even  with  the  light-bodied  breeds; 
if  netting  is  used  to  that  extent,  and  the  sup])orting  posts  carried 
1  foot  higher,  with  a  single  strand  of  wire  stietchcd  all  around 
the  riuis  on  tops  of  the  posts,  this  will  prevent  their  Hying  over. 
A  6-foot  fence  is  generally  suitable  to  the  houses,  and  looks  better 
than  one  either  higher  or  lower. 

For  fixed  runs  the  plan  is  to  drive  jDosts  or  fir  poles,  3  by  2 
inches  in  diameter,  into  the  ground,  and  upon  these  fix  the 
netting.  For  a  G-foot  fence  the  posts  should  be  8  feet  long  and 
pointed.  They  will  last  much  longer  if  well  tarred  or  crcosotcd 
before  they  are  tlriven  home.  Before  this  is  done,  gates  should 
be  fixed  so  as  to  facilitate  work  in  management  of  the  poultry. 
An  extra  gate  oi-  two  leading  from  one  run  into  another,  and  to 
the  outside  fields,  will  often  save  a  great  amoiuit  of  time.  Hence 
it  is  desirable  to  think  the  question  well  out  in  advance.  Where 
runs  are  arranged  side  by  side,  unless  they  are  di^ided  by  solid 
jDartitions,  the  male  birds  will  quarrel  and  often  injure  each  other, 
as  well  as  worry  themselves  by  the  sight  of  their  rivals.  For 
this  reason  the  bottom  2  feet  of  the  fence  should  be  closely 
boarded,  or  sheets  of  corrugated  iron  used  to  that  depth.  Not 
only  is  this  useful  for  prevention  of  fighting,  but  it  also  affords 
a  degree  of  shelter  against  wind,  and  adds  to  the  comfort  of  the 
inmates,  at  the  same  time  greatly  strengthening  the  fence 
Where  the  plan  recommended  is  adopted,  the  netting  need  not 
be  continued  to  the  ground,  but  nierely  to  the  top  of  the  boarding 
or  corrugated  iron,  overlapping  a  little  to  pre\ent  gaps  through 
which  the  birds  might  pass. 

The  appearance  of  wire  netting  is   greatly  improved  when  it 
is  stretched  tightly.     That  is  the  difficult  part  of  the  work  of 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  HOUSING        181 


erection.  An  excellent  plan  is  to  run  a  strand  of  wire  along  the 
tops  and  bottoms  of  the  posts,  so  that  not  only  is  the  netting 
fixed  by  staples  to  the  posts,  but  also  fastened  by  tying  wire 
to  the  strand.  If  the  netting  is  drawn  downwards  by  the  side 
wire  and  fixed  to  the  boards  or  corrugated  iron,  it  will  have  the 
taut  appearance  desired.  Where  this  plan  is  adopted,  the  posts 
may  be  10  or  12  feet  apart,  or  in  accordance  with  the  length  of 
the  sheets  of  corrugated  iion;  but  if  entirely  netted  they  would 
need  to  be  not  more  than  0  or  8  feet  from  each  other.  It  is 
desirable  that  gates  should  be  hung  well,  and  be  wide  enough 
to  permit  a  cart  to  pass  through. 

Most  important  are  the  fasteners  to  the  gates,  for  neglect  on 
this  score  may  mean  heavy  loss  by  mixing  the  breeding  pens, 
and  by  the  cock  birds  fighting.  I  have  known  as  much  injury 
done  in  this  way  by  a  bad  catch,  or  leaving  a  gate  unfastened. 


'Fixed  post 


Upright  post 
of  gate 


Pin  through 
\^  post 


Fig.  17. — Bent  Iron -Wire  Fastenfr  fob  Gate. 

as  would  have  paid  the  cost  of  good  fasteners  for  the  entire  plant. 
For  the  same  reason  a  gate  should  consist  of  a  stout  wooden 
frame,  the  bottom  of  which  is  solid,  and  the  upper  part  formed 
of  wooden  laths  2  inches  apart,  as  they  have  to  withstand  strong 
winds.  The  upright  posts  should  be  firm,  and  if  a  cross-piece 
is  fixed  across  the  to])  that  keeps  them  in  position.  Should  the 
gate  be  double,  then  a  bottom  cross-piece  may  be  fixed  also, 
so  that  bolts  can  be  used  on  one  half  above  and  below.  That  is 
not  required  for  single  gates.  For  fasteners  many  forms  are 
available.  Only  those,  however,  should  be  selected  which  can 
be  worked  from  either  side.  One  of  the  simplest  I  have  known 
is  made  of  stout  bent  wire,  and  can  be  prepared  by  any  blacksmith. 
It  is  shown  in  Fig.  17.  A  pin  of  the  same  wire  in  the  fixed  post 
prevents  it  falling  below  the  horizontal,  and  if  made  just  a  shade 
larger  than  the  post  it  is  firm,  and  can  be  operated  either  within 
or  without. 


182  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Hygienic  Conditions. — So  far  as  the  houses  are  concerned,  the 
iniportaucc  of  cleanliness  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 
Dirt  is  said  to  be  matter  in  the  wrong  place,  and  dirty  condi- 
tions mean  discomfort,  and  often  disease.  Wliere  birds  are  on 
range,  the  onlj^  point  needing  consideration  is  that  the  house 
shall  receive  attention  in  this  direction,  though  not  nearly  to  the 
extent  essential  in  fixed  dwellings.  In  the  last-named,  however, 
the  chief  danger  lies  in  the  outside  runs,  as  the  risk  of  tainted 
soil  from  manurial  contamination  is  ever  present. 

It  has  been  shown  that  a  well-fed  domestic  fowl  will  produce 
nearly  100  i3ounds  of  moist  manure  per  annum,  varjing  con- 
siderably in  accordance  with  the  feeding.  Upon  that  question 
more  is  said  later.  This  manure  is  of  considerable  value  in  con- 
nection with  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  but  that  is  not  the 
point  we  have  to  consider  at  the  i^resent  time. 

Where  fowls  are  kept  in  confinement,  it  is  frequently  the  case 
in  poultry-yards  that  every  blade  of  grass  is  absolutely  killed, 
and  the  top  crust  of  the  soil  becomes  little  better  than  a  manure- 
heap.  Under  these  conditions  we  can  easily  understand  how 
disease  is  certain  to  result  and  great  loss  ensue.  In  connection 
with  agriculture,  however,  there  is  no  excuse  for  that  state  of 
things.  The  demand  upon  all  cultivated  land  is  more  and  more 
for  manure,  in  order  that  it  may  become  of  greater  fertility. 
Consequently,  if  the  birds  are  scattered  about  and  not  con- 
centrated upon  one  place,  so  that  their  manure  is  widely  dis- 
tributed in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  soil,  then  the  benefit 
must  be  considerable;  but  if  the  same  fields  are  used  year  after 
year,  or  the  birds  are  simply  kept  about  the  farmyard,  then  in 
process  of  time  the  ground  becomes  tainted  and  disease  is  boiuid 
to  result. 


CHAPTER  XII 

GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

Capacity  to  produce  is  generally,  if  not  always,  present  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  the  actual  results  would  indicate. 
How  far  this  capacity  can  be  realized  is  as  yet  an  unsolved 
problem.  The  factors  which  are  at  work  for  development  of 
the  inherent  reserves  are  unknown  save  to  a  very  limited  degree. 
Upon  this  point  Professor  Eugene  Davenport  says:*  "For 
present  purposes  the  animal  bodj^  may  be  regarded  as  a  colony 
of  organs,  each  endowed  with  its  own  peculiar  function,  the  life 
of  the  whole  and  of  ever}'  member  being  dependent  upon  the 
degree  of  success  with  which  each  portion  does  its  work.  The 
whole  is,  therefore,  as  strong  as  its  weakest  member,  and  when 
the  whole  is  put  to  work  in  service  for  man,  that  service  will  not 
only  depend  upon  the  functional  activity  of  the  special  organ 
involved  .  .  .  but  also  upon  the  successful  discharge  of  all 
vital  functions  when  subjected  to  the  unnatural  strain  involved 
in  working  under  pressure.  The  point  at  which  the  machine 
will  break  down  or  fail  to  do  successful  work  is,  therefore,  a 
matter  of  relative  strength  of  parts."  The  practical  application 
of  what  is  here  stated  is  that,  additional  to  suitable  houses  and 
en%'ironment,  management  in  other  directions  must  be  satis- 
factory in  every  way,  otherwise  the  results  desired  will  not  be 
achieved.  It  has  been  said  that  the  en\ironment  is  permissive 
rather  than  assertive.  What  we  have  to  do  is  to  clear  out  of  the 
way  hindrances  to  development  and  production.  We  are  very 
slowly  and  somewhat  painfully  learning  what  these  hindrances 
are.     Too  often  are  they  created. 

Where  Management  tells. — One  of  the  most  successful  poultry- 
men  I  have  known  explained  as  his  secret  that  he  left  the  birds 
alone.     A  great  truth  is  here  involved.     He  did  not  mean  that 
they  were  neglected.     Ever;vthing  in  reason  was  pro\ided  for 
*  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  p.  87, 
1.^3 


184  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

them,  but  he  depended  upon  their  instinct  rather  than  his  own. 
He  helped  as  far  as  was  in  his  power,  but  never  fussed.  When 
things  did  not  turn  out  quite  as  was  expected,  the  cause  was 
sought  for,  and,  if  possible,  remedied.  Forcing  was  not  resorted 
to.  Selection,  however,  was  made  in  accordance  with  adapta- 
bility to  the  immediate  conditions,  and  in  this  way  the  pro- 
ductiveness was  advanced.  It  is  frecpicntly  found  that  the 
differences  in  results  obtained  b,v  two  people  living  under  prac- 
tically identical  conditions  vary  to  a  remarkable  degree.  There 
must  be  capacity  in  the  owner  as  well  as  in  the  hens.  He 
requires  to  know  what  to  do  and  when  to  do  it,  also  when  not  to 
be  passive,  and  to  utilize  his  knowledge.  The  fowls,  however, 
must  be  responsive  to  his  treatment. 

The  better  bred  the  poultry  and  the  larger  the  operations, 
the  more  important  is  this  question.  When  the  stock  are  of  a 
rougher  tyiDe,  and  are  maintained  inider  more  natural  conditions, 
they  are  able  to  bear  a  harder  environment.  In  that  case  the 
exercise  of  their  capacity  is  restricted,  and  they  are  usually  less 
productive  than  if  more  carefully  bred  and  fed.  The  cost, 
however,  of  maintenance  is  much  less,  so  that  the  margin  of 
profit  may  be  actually  greater.  We  have,  however,  to  remember 
that,  iniless  poultry  husbandry  can  be  developed  among  those 
who  must  make  profit  by  enhanced  production,  even  though  the 
cost  of  doing  so  is  increased,  the  volume  of  supplies  will  be  sensibly 
decreased.  As  previously  shown,  the  number  of  poultry  kept  in 
this  and  other  countries  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  size  of  the  holding. 

Causes  of  Infertility. — This  subject  is  of  special  importance  in 
the  case  of  breeding  stock,  the  niimber  of  eggs  from  which  is  not 
the  siipreme  object,  but  that  the  eggs  shall  possess  a  capacity 
for  producing  strong,  healthy,  virile  young  birds,  whatever  the 
species  may  be.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  many  eggs  laid 
have  not  this  capacity,  in  that  they  are  not  fertilized  by  the 
male  element.  An  infertile  egg  is  a  raro.  avis  in  a  wild  bird's 
nest.  Domestication  has  resulted  in  a  largely  increased  number 
of  eggs  produced  by  the  individual  hen,  which  may  mean  that 
the  development  of  the  ovaries  is  greater  than  the  glandular 
activity  can  meet,  so  that  the  o^nile  entering  the  oviduct  is  not 
fertilized.  A  further  cause  is  probabty  due  to  a  greater  strain 
upon  the  male,  especially  where  he  is  used  for  a  prolonged  period, 
than  he  is  able  to  meet.  In  this  respect,  also,  seasonal  influences 
may  operate  in  a  way  unknown  to  us.  Fertility  is  seldom  as 
high  in  the  autumn  and  winter  as  during  the  normal  breeding 
season — that  is,  the  spring.  That  may  be  climatic,  or,  as  has 
been  suggested,  due  to  the  reduced  supply  of  green  feed  and 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BEEEDING  STOCK       185 

parasitic  life.  And,  further,  the  reproductive  functions  may  be 
retarded  if  the  body  is  not  in  a  condition  to  permit  the  organs  to 
operate  freely,  as,  for  instance,  when  the  tissues  and  organs  are 
covered  with  fatty  deposits.  Normally  birds  are  hard  and  lean 
in  condition  when  the  season  for  breeding  arrives.  What  we 
should  seek  to  do  is  to  bring  them  into  the  same  state  of  body 
at  other  periods  if  fertile  eggs  are  desired.  That  can  be  accom- 
plished by  reducing  the  supply  of  food  and  making  them  work 
for  all  they  obtain.  There  can  be  no  question  that  fresh  air, 
to  suppty  an  abundance  of  oxygen  to  the  body,  does  much  to 
]irevent  infertility  in  eggs.  Therefore,  as  a  question  of  exercise, 
the  recommendation  has  been  several  times  made  that  breeding 
stock  should  be  on  range,  and  be  kept  in  open-front  houses.  Also 
that  they  should  not  be  yearlings,  but  fully  matured  in  both  sexes. 

Weak  Germs. — ^\Vhat  is  commonly  called  "  dead  in  shell "  is 
the  bete  noire  of  the  poultry-breeder.  In  these  eggs  the  germ  has 
been  vitalized,  but  has  not  sufficient  vigour  to  attain  embryonic 
maturity.  My  own  belief  is  that  this  arises,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  from  debilitated  constitutions  in  the  parents,  as  it  is 
found  to  be  greater  where  the  stock  are  weakened  from  any 
cause.  Sometimes  death  takes  place  after  hatching  has  been 
completed — that  is,  during  the  early  stages  of  chickenhood. 
As  contributory  causes  may  be  named — improper  conditions  for 
hat_ching,  want  or  excess  of  nioisture,  lack  of  atteiition  on  the 
part  of  the  hen,  or  irregular  working  of  the  incubator.  And, 
further,  a  hen  in  the  natural  state  selects  her  own  nest,  and  does 
not  commence  to  lay  until  the  right  season  has  arrived.  I  feel 
confident,  however,  that  the  chief  cause  of  infertility  and  death 
in  shell  is  owing  to  lack  of  reproductive  vitality  in  the  parents. 
Unless  that  is  present,  the  germ  and  embryo  cannot  have  a  fair 
opportunity  for  development.  These  are  the  conclusions  and 
observations  at  home  and  abroad.  In  addition  must  be  regarded 
the  fact  that  a  hen  may  transmit  disease  germs  to  her  progeny 
through  the  egg.  Observations  made  in  connection  with  the 
epidemic  which  devastated  the  poultry  of  Belgium  in  1912  and 
1913  showed  that  the  microbe  causing  the  disease  in  chickens 
had  been  traced  in  the  parent  hens  and  the  eggs  laid  by  them. 
And  in  the  same  way  the  male  may  infect  eggs  by  the  oviduct. 

Number  of  Hens  to  Male. — Some  of  the  more  vigorous  males 
will  serve  from  ten  to  twenty  hens,  according  to  the  season  of 
the  year,  and  less  woidd  be  hurtful  to  the  hens ;  whilst  there  are 
others,  less  \ngorous,  for  whom  ten  hens  would  at  any  time  be 
too  manv,  and  in  the  colder  season  half  a  dozen  are  sufficient. 


180  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

There  is,  of  course,  also  a  difference  in  individual  hens  of  the 
same  breed,  and  no  certain  rule  can  be  given  that  will  apply  to 
every  case.  For  utility  poultry,  as  a  nde,  eight  in  the  heavier 
breeds,  and  twelve  in  the  more  active,  are  safe  numbers.  If  the 
hens  seem  to  be  distressed,  and  show  this  by  the  loss  of  feathers 
on  their  Imcks,  then  more  hens  should  be  given  at  once.  If  the 
number  of  hens  be  small,  and  it  can  be  accomplished,  the  male 
need  not  be  with  them  ail  the  time.  There  is  also  anothei-  cause 
of  infertile  eggs  when  birds  are  in  confinement,  and  one  which 
is  often  unsuspected — viz.,  that  the  cock  bird  does  not  get  suffi- 
cient food.  His  gallantry  to  the  ladies  of  his  harem  leads  him 
to  see  that  they  are  all  fed  before  he  partakes  of  any  food,  and 
if  there  is  only  a  limited  supply,  or  they  are  fed  by  an  attendant 
who  only  throws  down  as  much  as  the  birds  appear  to  eat  greedily, 
then  the  probabilities  are  that  he  will  not  get  a  sufficient  supply. 
When  the  male  is  found  to  be  losing  fiesh  rapidly,  he  should  be  care- 
fully observed.  The  scratching-shed  system  obviates  this  difficulty. 

Nests. — Although  it  is  not  easy  to  give  an  absolute  reason  for 
doing  so,  I  have  always  felt  it  desirable  that  breeding  hens 
should  be  provided  with  a  somewhat  larger  proportion  of  nests, 
than  where  they  are  merely  kept  as  egg  producers,  and  that  it  is 
profitable  to  pay  special  attention  to  cleanliness  in  and  position 
of  the  nest  boxes,  as  in  the  houses  also.  Whatever  conduces  to 
the  comfort  of  the  birds  at  this  time,  within  reason,  is  desirable, 
though  that  does  not  mean  they  should  be  pampered  or  so  fed 
as  to  become  gross  in  body.  In  fact,  as  stated  in  the  next 
chapter,  the  evidences  are  that,  whilst  soft  food  may  be  useful 
to  promote  laying,  better  and  stronger  eggs  are  obtained  where 
corn  is  the  main  supplied  food,  and  exercise  fostered  by  scratch- 
ing. A  further  point  is  that  the  nests  should  be  in  a  cpiiet  place, 
so  that  the  birds  may  be  undisturbed.  How  many  malformed 
shells  are  due  to  the  hens  being  affrighted  or  interfered  with  is 
not  known.     Probably  more  than  has  commonly  been  suspected. 

Sex  Influences. — From  the  earliest  period  study  of  and  specu- 
lations upon  the  determination  of  sex  have  been  general,  even  as 
far  back  as  the  time  of  Aristotle.  That  there  must  be  some  in- 
influence  by  which  whether  the  egg  shall  pioduce  a  male  or  a 
female  is  decided  is  evident.  It  is,  however,  one  of  the  many 
secrets  which  Nature  reserves  to  herself.  Hundreds  of  theories 
have  been  promulgated — some  with  more  and  others  with  less 
probability.  In  a  few  cases  we  have  apparently  had  nearly 
sufficient  data  to  arrive  at  a  workable  plan  of  operations.  Tlien, 
again,  the  elusiveness  of  this  prcjblem  has  revealed  itself.      In 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK       187 

practice  these  call  break  down.  One  of  the  latest  snggestions, 
and  with  some  elements  of  probability,  is  that  the  food  reserves — 
that  is,  the  body  condition  of  the  mother — is  the  determining 
factor  in  mammals,  which  would  mean  that  the  richness  of  the 
yolk  in  birds,  as  a  residt  of  better  feeding,  is  what  decides  the 
sex — namely,  that  high  condition  tends  to  a  greater  number  of 
females.  Here,  again,  however,  tests  have  not  confirmed  the 
theory,  and  the  breeder  has  to  accept  the  fact  that  he  is  \niable 
to  control  the  sex.  It  would  certainly  be  a  great  gain  were  this 
within  his  power,  for  to  the  majority  of  poultry-keepers  pullets 
are  the  more  desired.  The  world  was  interested  some  years  ago 
l)y  introduction  of  an  instrument,  the  inventor  of  which  claimed 
that  it  would  tell  the  sex  of  even  an  egg.  A  few  successful 
guesses  resulted  from  tests  made,  but  in  practice  it  hopelessly 
broke  dowai,  and  therefore  I  need  not  refer  to  it  further. 

Mental  Impressions. — A  very  common  idea  has  been  that 
mothers  during  the  time  of  pregnancy  are  susceptible  through 
the  sight  to  influences  which  may  affect  the  progeny.  Scientific 
observations  have  failed  to  reveal  actual  cases  more  than  could 
])e  explained  by  ordinary  variations.  In  the  case  of  poultry, 
as  the  embryonic  period  is  after  the  egg  has  been  laid,  the  in- 
fluence, if  such  existed,  woxdd  be  before  the  ovule  left  the  ovary. 
The  breeder  of  these  species,  therefore,  may  ignore  such  theories, 
as  also  what  is  known  as  telegony — that  is,  the  influence  of  the 
first  male  upon  future  progeny  than  his  own. 

Duration  o£  Male  Influence. — Many  observations  have  been 
made  to  learn  the  duration  of  influence  of  a  male  bird  in  respect 
to  the  fertility  of  eggs.  The  latest  of  which  I  am  aware  are 
those  made  by  Professor  J.  L.  Frateur,  of  Louvain  University, 
Belgium.  The  first  test  was  to  discern  how  long  the  influence 
remained  after  removal  of  the  coc-k.  Three  lots  of  hens  were 
tested.  Whilst  there  were  considerable  variation.s — namely, 
that  in  one  lot  three  eggs  laid  on  the  eleventh  day  were  all 
fertile,  and  in  another,  out  of  three  laid  on  the  thirteenth  day, 
two  w^ere  fertile — of  two  lots  none  were  fertile  after  the  fourteenth 
day,  and  in  the  other  after  the  thii-teenth  day,  although  the 
experiment  was  continued  for  four  weeks.  The  second  test 
was  in  the  reverse  way.  Five  lots  of  hens  were  mated,  with 
which  had  been  no  male  for  forty  days.  The  residts  show  that 
no  egg  on  the  first  day  was  vitalized ;  on  the  second  day  seventeen 
eggs  were  laid,  of  which  eight  were  fertile;  after  the  second  day 
the  majority  of  eggs  were  fertile.  It  may  be  assumed,  therefore, 
that  two  clear  days  should  be  allowed  after  mating  takes  place 
before  the  eggs  are  used  for  hatching. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

It  is  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  importance  of  the  ques- 
tion of  feeding.  Hence  the  relative  value  of  different  feeding- 
stuffs,  and  their  effect  upon  the  birds,  i-equire  full  consideration. 
There  are  two  reasons  for  emphasizing  the  importance  of  this 
subject.  In  the  first  place,  it  deals  with  the  process  of  preparing 
food  for  human  consumption;  that  is  a  matter  of  national  con- 
cern. Dependent  upon  it  to  a  certain  extent  is  the  public 
health.  In  the  second  place,  the  ultimate  position  of  poultry 
husbandry  is  determined  by  the  possibility  of  feeding  success- 
fully at  a  cost  that  will  allow  the  realization  of  a  substantial 
profit.  Unless  this  latter  is  attainable,  all  endeavours  to  estab- 
lish and  carry  on  a  profitable  industry  are  futile. 

Natural  Food. — The  wild  progenitors  of  present-day  races  of 
domestic  poultry  subsisted  entirely  upon  the  materials  which  they 
were  able  to  obtain  for  themselves.  That,  therefore,  sho\ild  be 
the  basis  of  all  feeding,  though,  seeing  that  greater  results  are 
expected  from  domesticated  poultry  than  from  birds  in  their 
wild  state,  the  natm-al  food  must  in  every  case  be  supplemented 
by  other  feeding-stuffs.  It  is  necessary  in  this  connection  to 
consider  what  may  be  obtained  naturally.  There  is  not  suffi- 
cient evidence  to  enable  a  definite  statement  to  be  made,  de- 
scribing all  the  various  substances  that  birds  gather  from  the 
earth.  Information  on  this  point  is  inadequate.  It  is  possible, 
however,  to  mention  some  of  the  forms  of  food  that  are  thus 
obtained.  These  comprise  worms,  slugs,  insect  life,  seeds,  lime, 
various  salts,  and  small,  sharp  stoiies.  Two  facts  may  be 
definitely  stated — namely,  that  natural  food  is  superior  to  any 
aitificial  or  fed  food,  and  that  it  varies  in  nature  according  to  the 
season  of  the  year,  and  in  accordance  with  the  special  require- 
ments of  the  body  at  these  seasons. 

It  will  suffice  for  our  purpose  if  wo  deal  with  the  f[iKsti(  n 
188 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  189 

generally,  and  not  in  detail.  In  the  wine -producing  districts 
of  France,  large  flocks  of  poultry  are  allowed  to  wander  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  over  the  vineyards.  It  is  found  that 
by  this  practice  they  not  only  obtain  a  large  supply  of  highly 
nutritious  food,  but  at  the  same  time  they  clear  the  growing 
vines  of  injurious  forms  of  insect  life.  In  view  of  the  above 
it  may  be  stated  that,  though  contrary,  perhaps,  to  general 
opinion,  gravel  or  sandy  soil  are  not  the  best  for  poultrj^  but 
that  loam  with  a  gravel  subsoil  and  a  substratum  of  clay  is 
superior.  Further,  a  heavy  clay,  for  birds  that  are  given  their 
libej'ty,  is  better  than  pure  sand. 

Liberty  the  Ideal. — The  ideal  method  of  ijoultry-keeping — from 
the  point  of  view  of  successful  and  economical  feeding — is  that 
which  allows  birds  their  liberty.  Under  such  conditions  they 
are  afforded  an  opi^ortunity  of  obtaining  a  supjjly  of  natural 
food.  There  are  various  systems  of  poultry-keeping,  and  the 
amount  of  luitural  food  that  birds  will  gather  depends  entirely 
upon  which  system  is  adopted.  These  methods  have  been 
referred  to  elsewhere,  but  it  is  necessary  to  re-enumerate. 
Although  there  maj^  be  graduations  between  the  different 
SA'stems,  it  can  be  generally  accepted  that  three  methods  are  in 
common  use.  These  are  the  extensive,  the  semi-intensi^'e,  and 
the  intensive  systems.  The  amount  of  natural  food  that  Avill 
be  obtained  by  the  birds  under  these  methods  may  be  described 
respectively  as  considerable,  slight,  and  nil. 

Artificial  Foods. — To  insure  success  in  poultry -keeping,  natural 
food  must  be  supplemented  by  artificial — that  is,  sui)i)lied 
fccding-stufifs.  From  what  has  been  stated  above,  it  will  be 
realized  that  the  qiumtity  of  artificial,  or  fed,  foods  must  depend 
upon  which  system  is  adopted.  In  the  case  of  the  intensive 
method,  given  that  other  results  are  equal,  it  can  only  be  con- 
sidered successful  when  increased  production  is  sufficient  to 
repay  the  added  cost  of  feeding.  This  is  a  i^oint  that  must 
always  be  considered.  As  evidence  may  be  submitted  the 
following:  Under  farm  poultry-keeping  conditions  there  are 
many  who  are  able  to  feed  their  fowls  for  a  sum  not  exceeding 
2s.  6d.  to  3s.  per  bu'd  per  annum;  whereas  it  is  found  under  the 
intensive  system  that  the  food  consumed  may  have  a  value  of 
Ts.  a  year  and  upwards.  If  the  increased  production  mider  the 
latter  conditions  is  sufficient  to  make  good  this  difference,  then 
it  is  possible  to  sa}^  that  both  sj^stems  are  equally  successful. 

Food  Constituents. — All  foods,  whether  natural  or  artificial, 
are  composed  of  various  constituents  or  groups  of  compounds. 


190  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Consideied  from  a  chemical  .staiidi3oint,  these  are  as  follows: 
(1)  Water;  (2)  nitrogenous  substances  ;  (3)  fats;  (4)  carbo- 
hydrates or  starchy  material ;  (5)  fibre ;  and  (6)  ash. 

1.  Water  :  Is  present  in  greatly  varying  quantities.  For  in- 
stance, in  young  clover  there  is  about  92  per  cent.;  in  certain 
other  foods  as  little  as  8  per  cent.  Water  has  no  feeding  value, 
but  is  a  necessary  constituent. 

2.  Nitrogenous  Matter  :  Forms  feathers,  skin,  blood,  muscle, 
and  the  greater  portion  of  the  egg. 

3.  Fats  :  Provide  the  necessary  oily  secretions  at  the  joints 
and  under  the  skin,  and  assist  in  maintaining  the  body  tem- 
l)erature.  In  the  case  of  birds  for  eating,  fats  soften  the  flesh, 
in  that  they  replace  the  water  which  is  jDrcsent  under  normal 
conditions  in  the  body. 

4.  Carbo-hydrates  :  These  supply  the  necessar}'  heat  and  energy 
to  the  frame,  muscles,  and  organs. 

.").  Fibre  :  Consists  of  the  cell  walls  of  the  plant,  and  is  of  little 
use  to  j)oultry.  Although  it  is  built  up  of  the  same  elements, 
and  in  the  same  proportion,  as  the  last-mentioned  grouj)  of  com- 
pounds, it  possesses  different  characteristics.  Food  passes  so 
rapidly  through  the  digestive  system  of  the  bird  that  fibre  is 
hardly  acted  ujjon  at  all  by  the  various  digestive  juices,  or  the 
bacteria  or  organisms  in  the  intestines.  The  bird  body  differs 
in  this  respect  from  that  of  an  animal. 

6.  Ash  :  Composed  of  salts,  and  is  of  considerable  importance 
to  the  sj'stem.  As  yet  the  exact  value  of  this  constituent  is  not 
known.  Sodium  salts  are  a  valuable  addition  to  the  food  of 
animals.  Little  information,  however,  has  been  collected  with 
reference  to  the  action  of  salts  in  the  case  of  poultry. 

Available  Artificial  Foods. — No  definite  conclusion  can  be 
arrived  at  with  regard  to  foods  and  their  value,  until  we  under- 
stand the  exact  proportion  in  which  the  above-mentioned  group 
of  compounds  are  present.  Every  vegetable  substance  contains 
the  whole  six.  Animal  substances  contain  all  but  the  fourth 
(carbo-hydrates).  There  are  no  carbo-hydrates  or  starch  in  the 
animal  body. 

Although  we  have  classed  the  various  constituents  into  six 
groups,  it  must  not  be  understood  that  all  substances  in  the  same 
group  are  equally  valuable  as  food.  'J'hat  is  not  the  case.  A 
proportion  of  the  nitrogenous  material,  the  fats,  and  the  carbo- 
hydrates, are  indigestible — i.e.,  they  are  not  acted  ui^on  by  the 
digestive  juices,  and  are  therefore  of  no  value  as  food  to  the 
body.  The  monetary  value  of  a  food  is  determined  by  the 
percentage  of  the  digestible  organic  matter   that  it   contains. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTHY  191 

wlieiea.s  the  feeding  value  is  governed  by  the  proportion,  or  the 
ratio,  between  the  nitrogenous  substances  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  heat-producing  or  non-nitrogenous  constituents — that  is, 
fats  and  carbo-hydrates — on  the  other.  This  is  termed  the 
nutrient  or  albuminoid  ratio.  The  formula  by  which  this 
ratio  is  determined  will  be  ex]jlained  later.  In  the  table  on 
p.  192  is  given  a  list  of  the  principal  feeding-stuffs,  together 
with  their  analysis,  including  total  digestible  organic  matter 
and  the  nutritive  ratio.  Wherever  possible  the  percentage  of 
digestible  constituents  is  given,  but  in  some  instances  that  is 
not  possible.. 

It  has  been  considered  better  to  give  fully  these  particulars 
for  a  large  lumiber  of  foods,  although  the  majority  are  not  in 
ordinary  use.  These  are  all,  however,  eminent!}'  suitable  for 
poultry -feeding,  and  the  only  determining  factor  is  their  market 
value.  If  two  feeding-stuffs  of  a  similar  nature  can  be  pur- 
chased at  the  same  figure,  the  one  containing  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  digestible  organic  matter  is  the  cheaper.  Realization 
of  this  fact  enables  the  poultry-keeper  to  save  considerabl}'  on 
his  food  bill. 

Influence  of  Cooking. — Une  of  the  effects  of  cooking  is  in  cer- 
tain instances  to  decrease  the  jiercentage  of  chgestible  nitrogenous 
matter,  but  only  a  small  proportion  is  affected  in  that  direction. 
Cooking  with  the  majority  of  foods  is  beneficial;  esj^ecially  is 
this  the  case  with  feecUng-stuffs  that  contain  a  large  proportion 
of  fibre.  If  such  foods  are  cooked  before  the}-  are  fed,  the  small 
loss  in  the  percentage  of  digestible  albuminoids  is  more  than 
compensated  by  the  greater  ease  with  which  the  other  constitu- 
ents are  acted  upon  by  the  digestive  juices.  In  any  case^ 
whether  cooked  or  uncooked,  wet  mashes  should  always  be  fed 
warm,  and  not  cold.  That  is  most  of  all  imjiortant  in  cold 
weather.  With  a  cold  wet  mash  a  certain  amount  of  body-heat 
is  utilized  for  raising  the  contents  of  the  digestive  tract  to  the 
same  temperature  as  the  body  itself.  This  body -heat  is  supplied 
by  the  food,  and  therefore,  when  a  cold  wet  mash  is  fed,  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  food  is  wasted. 

Requirements  ot  the  Bird  Body. — To  enable  the  body,  together 
with  the  various  organs  and  muscles  of  which  it  is  comprised, 
to  fulfil  its  proper  functions,  there  are  certain  requirements  that 
nmst  be  satisfied.  In  the  case  of  a  chicken  the  material  must 
be  supplied  from  which  the  increase  in  size  can  be  derived. 
Adult  birds  require  a  similar  material  for  upkeejj  of  the  bodv,  or. 


192 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


in  other  wordsi,  to  repair  the  waste  of  tis«iic  that  is  constantly 
taking    place.     The    nitrogenous    matter    supplies    this    need. 


s. 

1 

1? 

^•1 

CO  s 

a 

d-^ 

•d  rt 

Foods. 

1 

1^^ 

' 

6 

1 

1 

Is 

11 

S.2 
.5-5 

Artichokes  (Jerusa- 

lem) 

80-0 

2-0 

0-2 

15-5 

1-3 

1-0 

17-7 

1:8-0 

Barley 

14-0 

7-7 

2-3 

50-1 

4-9 

2-7 

00-1 

1:  8-0 

Beans 

14-0 

24-0 

1-5 

48-0 

2-5 

10-0 

73-5 

1:2-1 

Beans  (Soya) 

10-80 

34-0 

10-9 

28-8 

4-7 

4-8 

79-7 

1:2-0 

Beanmeal 

14-5 

23-0 

1-4 

43-0 

9-4 

3-1 

()8-0 

1 :  2-0 

Brewers'  grains     . . 

70-0 

3-9 

0-4 

9-5 

0-2 

1-2 

13-8 

1:2-7 

Brewers'   grains 

(desiccated) 

12-U 

18-7 

8-1 

49-0 

7-9 

4-3 

75-8 

1 :  3-3 

Buckwheat 

14-0 

(i-8 

1-2 

44-0 

15-0 

1-8 

52-0 

1 :  0-9 

Buttermilk 

90-1 

3-0 

1-0 

5-4 

-^ 

0-5 

9-4 

1:2-5 

Cabbage     . . 

89-0 

1-1 

0-2 

0-0 

2-0 

1-2 

7-3 

1 :  5-9 

Clover  hay 

10-0 

4-5 

2-2 

34-0 

20-5 

0-2 

51-3 

1:2-7 

Cow's    milk    (separ- 

ated) 

90-5 

3-9 

0-4 

4-5 

— 

0-7 

8-8 

1:1-4 

Cow's  milk 

(skimmed) 

90 -0 

3-0 

0-0 

5-() 

0-8 

9-2 

1 :  2-3 

Dari 

8-9 

13-1 

4-0 

67-1 

M) 

4-4 

85-8 

1 :  5-9 

Hempseed 

12-2 

12-2 

30-2 

J  5-0 

12-1 

4-5 

57-4 

1 :  0-9 

Lettuce       . . 

9:i-o 

0-7 

— 

4-7 

0-0 

1-0 

5-4 

1:7-0 

Linseed 

12-3 

17-2 

35-2 

15-3 

7-2 

3-4 

67-7 

1:  5-5 

Linseed-meal  (ex- 

tracted).. 

9-7 

28-7 

4-0 

29-4 

0-7 

7-3 

02-1 

1:1-3 

Lucerne  (green)    . . 

74-0 

3-2 

0-3 

9-1 

9-5 

2-0 

12-0 

1:3-1 

Lucerne  hay 

l(J-.5 

12-3 

0-9 

31-4 

20-0 

0-8 

44-0 

1:2-7 

Maize 

14-4 

8-4 

4-8 

57-8 

5-5 

1-5 

71-0 

1:8-2 

-Mangold-wurzel    . . 

88-0 

1-1 

0-1 

9-1 

0-9 

0-8 

10-3 

1:8-5 

Meal  (granulated) 

— . 

63-24 

13-32 

■ — ■ 

■ — . 

— 

. — 

— 

Millet 

14-0 

9-5 

2-G 

43-1 

9-5 

3-0 

55-2 

1:5-2 

Oats 

14-3 

9-0 

4-7 

41-8 

9-3 

2-7 

55-5 

1:5-8 

Oatmeal     . . 

10-5 

8-5 

3-0 

48-2 

14-5 

0-8 

00-3 

1 :  0-6 

Peas 

14-3 

20-2 

1-7 

49-9 

0-4 

2-4 

71-8 

1:2-7 

Pcameal 

11-4 

20-9 

2-8 

55-4 

4-5 

3-5 

79-1 

1:  3-0 

Potatoes     . . 

75-0 

i-1 

0-3 

20-0 

1-1 

0-9 

23-0 

1:10-1 

Rape  forage 
Rice 

87-0 

2-0 

0-4 

4-8 

4-2 

1-0 

7-2 

1 :  2-85 

14-0 

6-9 

0-3 

72-7 

2-2 

0-5 

79-9 

1 :  10-0 

Sunflower-seed      . . 

8-0 

11-1 

21-2 

28-1 

28-5 

3-0 

00-4 

1 :  0-9 

Turnips  and  swedes 

89-4 

1-3 

0-1 

0-3 

1-3 

0-0 

7-7 

1 :  5-0 

Wheat 

14-4 

11-7 

1-2 

(54-3 

3-0 

1-7 

77-2 

1 :  5-7 

Wheat  bran 

13-0 

10-0 

2-4 

44-4 

8-9 

5-0 

57-4 

1:4-7 

Wheat  middlings  . . 

12-5 

14-0 

3-4 

01-0 

4-7 

2-9 

79-6 

1 :  4-75 

AVhey 

93-2 

0-8 

0-3 

5-0 

— ■ 

0-0 

0-1 

1:7-1 

(For  the  above  I  am  indebted   to  "Mr.  Primrose  McConnells  "Agricultural 
Note-Book,"  and  other  sources. 

Again,  oily  secretions  are  essential  to  the  well-being  of  the  bird. 
These  can  only  bo  obtained  from  the  fats  contained  in  food. 
The  body  also  requires  heat  and  energy,  which  are  found  in  the 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  193 

carbo-hydrates  and  the  fats.  A  portion  of  the  latent  energy  is 
transformed  into  mechanical  power,  whilst  the  residue  is  changed 
into  heat.  Lastly,  in  the  case  of  feeding  for  egg  production,  the 
body  requires  material  from  which  the  eggs  can  be  formed — 
namely,  albuminoids  for  the  most  part.  Where  fattening  is  the 
object  in  view,  a  special  form  of  flesh  is  wanted,  and  the  sub- 
stances for  its  construction  must  be  provided  by  the  food. 

Food  Digestion  and  Assimilation. — It  has  already  been  shown 
that  all  foods,  with  the  exception  of  animal  substances,  contain 
each  of  the  necessary  constituents  in  varj'ing  proportions  for 
the  upkeep  of  the  bird  body.  How  these  various  constituents  are 
rendered  available  is  now  to  be  described.  It  must  be  stated 
at  this  jinicture,  however,  that  all  food  is  considered  to  be  out- 
side the  body  until  it  has  been  assimilated — i.e.,  absorbed  into 
the  blood.  It  is  only  the  products  of  digestion  which  can  be 
made  useful  in  this  manner. 

To  state  the  matter  simply,  it  may  be  said  that  the  whole 
object  of  digestion  is  to  render  soluble  the  insoluble  digestible 
constituents  in  food.  Whether  whole  grain,  meal,  green  food, 
milk  refuse,  or  animal  food,  is  considered,  we  find  the  whole  is 
in  an  insoluble  state.  The  various  juices  secreted  bj'  the  organs 
of  the  aliment  ar}^  canal  act  upon  these  constituents,  thus  render- 
ing them  soluble.  Soluble  materials  are  termed  the  products 
of  digestion.  The  actions  that  take  place  in  the  digestive  tract 
are  as  follows :  The  food  is  taken  thi'ough  the  mouth,  and  passed 
by  means  of  the  oesophagus  into  the  crop;  here  it  is  mixed  with 
a  secretion  similar  in  many  respects  to  the  saliva  of  mammals, 
which  acts  upon  the  carbo-hydrates  or  starch,  and  converts  this 
group  of  compounds  into  sugar.  The  food  continues  its  way 
until  it  reaches  the  stomach  ;  here  another  juice — the  gastric — is 
poured  in,  which  converts  the  insoluble  albuminoids  into  soluble 
peptones.  The  saliva  and  the  gastric  juice  continue  to  act 
during  the  passage  of  the  bolus  of  food  through  the  remainder 
of  the  alimentary  canal.  Their  action  is  not  confined  to  the  siDace 
of  time  during  which  the  food  remains  in  the  croj)  and  the 
stomach.  Passing  still  farther,  after  being  ground  in  the  gizzard, 
the  food  reaches  the  small  intestine,  where  by  means  of  two 
more  secretions — the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice — part  of  the  fat 
is  converted  into  soap,  that  helping  to  emulsify  the  remainder. 
In  addition,  these  juices  have  the  power  of  acting  upon  any 
starchy  or  albuminoid  material  that  has  hitherto  been  left  un- 
touched. What  little  fibre  or  cellulose  is  affected  is  broken 
down  b}^  means  of  organisms  in  the  intestines.  At  this  stage  all 
the  products  of  digestion  are  soluble,  ready  to  be  received  into 

13 


194  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

the  blood.  This  is  brought  about  in  two  ways :  part  is  absorbed 
directly  through  the  manj^  small  veins  that  intersect  the  walls  of 
the  intestine,  the  remainder  being  absorbed  by  means  of  villi, 
or  organs  in  the  wall  of  the  intestine  connected  with  the  lym- 
phatic system.  After  traversing  that  system,  the  soluble  con- 
stituents are  poured  into  the  blood  in  the  jugular  vein.  When 
once  in  the  blood,  the  products  of  digestion  are  carried  throughout 
the  bird,  to  be  used  for  all  the  requirements  of  the  body. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  fats  and  the  carbo- 
hydrates are  both  utilized  for  the  production  of  heat  force.  It 
is  necessarj^,  however,  to  refer  at  this  stage  to  the  difference  in 
value  between  these  two  groups  of  compounds  as  regards  the 
function  which  they  both  perform.  One  pound  of  fat  will 
generate  as  much  heat  as  229  pounds  of  carbo-hydrates.  There- 
fore, in  calculating  the  nutrient  ratio  of  any  food,  this  fact  must 
be  taken  into  consideration.  To  obtain  a  ratio  the  nitrogenous 
compounds  are  compared  with  the  fats  and  the  carbo-hydiates, 
or,  in  other  words,  with  the  non-nitrogenous  substances.  To 
determine  the  ratio  the  percentage  of  fat  must  be  multiplied  by 
229,  in  order  to  bring  it  to  the  equivalent  of  starch,  added  to  the 
carbo-hj^drates,  and  divided  by  the  albuminoids.  For  example, 
the  analysis  of  Jerusalem  artichokes — the  first  food  mentioned 
in  the  list  of  feeding-stuffs — is  20  per  cent,  albuminoids,  0"2  per 
cent,  fats,  and  15.5  per  cent,  carbo-hycb-ates.  To  calculate  the 
nutrient  ratio  the  following  formula  is  used : 

Albuminoids  :  Fats  X  2-29  -t-  Carbo-hydrates 
or  2-0  :  0-2  x  2-29  +  15-5 
or  2-0  :  15-958 
1  :  7-979 
or  practically  1-8 

This  means  that  for  every  part  of  digestible  nitrogenous  or 
flesh-forming  material  there  are  eight  parts  of  heat-producing 
constituents  in  the  food.  To  determine  the  albuminoid  ratio 
of  a  mixture,  the  percentage  of  each  constituent  in  each  in- 
dividual food  used  should  be  added  together,  and  afterwards 
work  out  the  result  by  the  formula  as  given  above.  In  other 
words,  the  total  fats  are  multiplied  by  2-29,  added  to  the 
total  carbo-hydrates,  and  this  result  divided  by  the  total 
albuminoids. 

The  demand  of  the  bird's  body  varies  according  to  the  con- 
ditions under  which  it  is  kept;  therefore  at  this  point  it  can  only 
be  stated  that  the  body  requires  an  albuminoid  or  nutrient  ratio 
of  from  1  :  4  to  1  :  7.  Under  the  heading  of  Food  Tables  this 
requirement  is  treai:ed  more  fully. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  195 

Hard  Food  and  Wet  and  Dry  Soft  Mashes. — ^Apart  from  the 
question  of  green  food  and  milk  products,  foods  can  be  divided 
into  grains  and  meals.  There  are  two  or  three  waj^s  in  which 
these  substances  can  be  fed.  As  a  general  rule — the  only  excep- 
tion being  in  the  case  of  water -fowl — the  grains  are  fed  in  a  dry 
state,  either  given  whole  or  milled.  Meals  can,  however,  be  fed 
either  in  the  form  of  a  crumbly,  moist  mixture — a  wet  mash  or 
soft  food — or  in  their  original  condition,  forming  a  dry  mash. 
The  former  of  these  is  the  one  generally  used  in  this  country. 
Feeding  a  dry  mash — in  self-feeding  hoppers — is  practised  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  America  and  Canada,  and,  so  far  as  ex- 
perience has  gone,  with  excellent  results.  The  introduction  of 
the  dry  mash  system  of  feeding  is  to  be  advocated  under  certain 
conditions  among  British  poultry-keepers.  There  does  not  appear 
to  be  any  difference  whatsoever  in  the  digestibility  of  the  meals, 
with  the  exception  of  the  point  to  which  reference  is  made  above, 
when  fed  wet  or  diy.  Moreover,  hopper  feeding  undoubtedly 
saves  a  considerable  amount  of  labour,  both  in  the  preparation 
of  the  mash  and  in  the  feeding  itself,  although  it  may  be  more 
costly.  The  practice  as  followed  in  the  States  is  to  use  hoppers 
with  a  capacity  sufficient  for  a  week's  supply,  the  daily  operations 
being  confined  to  giving  one  feed  of  corn  in  litter  and  replenish- 
ing the  water-troughs.  The  fowls  do  not  appear  very  keen  on 
the  di-y  mash,  hence  its  use  tends  to  make  them  take  exercise 
in  scratching  for  the  corn. 

Whenever  possible,  hard  grain  should  always  be  scattered  in 
litter  covering  the  scratching-shed  floor,  given  that  the  litter 
is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  render  this  practicable.  In  the  case  of 
birds  that  have  their  liberty,  roosting  in  portable  houses,  if  the 
weather  is  dry,  this  form  of  food  can  be  thrown  on  the  ground, 
but  care  must  be  taken  that  too  great  a  quantity  is  not  so  fed. 
In  wet  weather  it  should  be  placed  in  a  trough  under  cover. 
Soft  mashes  should  always  be  trough-fed,  otherwise  they  are 
likely  to  become  contaminated  by  the  birds'  feet  and  the  excreta 
on  the  ground.  A  dry  mash,  as  has  already  been  stated,  is  fed 
in  a  self-working  hopper. 

Whether  the  wet  or  the  dry  mash  method  is  employed,  supple- 
mented by  the  use  of  grain,  and  whether,  in  the  case  of  the  former, 
the  wet  mash  is  fed  as  the  first  or  the  last  meal  of  the  day,  must 
necessarily  depend  on  the  system  of  poultry-keeping  that  is  adopted . 

Methods  of  Feeding. — ^As  already  pointed  out,  there  are 
three  sj^stems  of  poultry -keeping — namely,  (1)  the  extensive,  or 
range;  (2)  the  semi-intensive;  and  (3)  the  intensive,  A  different 
method  of  feeding  is  desirable  under  each  set  of  conditions. 


196  rOULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

The  principal  .sec;rct  of  successful  feeding,  judged  both  from 
the  econondcal  and  the  production  standpoints,  is  to  keep  the 
birds  actively  hungry  during  the  da}',  giving  them  as  much  food 
as  they  will  consume  about  an  hour  before  they  go  to  roost. 
The  term  "  actively  hungry  "  is  intended  to  denote  that  degree 
of  appetite  which  is  sufficient  to  encourage  the  birds  to  look  for 
more  food  themselves.  The  gathering  of  food,  whether  it  be  of 
a  natural  kind,  as  when  birds  are  given  their  liberty,  or  artificial, 
as  when  buried  in  the  litter  of  a  scratching  shed,  conduces  to 
health,  in  that  the  fowls  must  take  exercise  in  securing  what 
they  require.  The  importance  of  this  fact  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. A  bird  that  is  lazy  can  never  be  profitable  as  a 
layer,  hence  the  advantage  of  adopting  a  system  that  will  hinder 
the  fowls  from  exhibiting  this  characteristic. 

If  fowls  are  given  a  free  range,  there  will  be  a  large  source  of 
food-supply  at  their  command,  which  acts  as  an  incentive  to 
wander  over  the  land  in  search  of  the  special  forms  of  natural 
food  they  desire.  Under  these  conditions  the  first  feed  in  the 
day  should  consist  of  a  wet  mash,  given  as  earlj^  as  possible. 
Only  sufficient  of  this  mash  should  be  fed,  however,  to  take  the 
keen  edge  off  the  appetite,  thus  encouraging  the  birds  to  search 
for  a  further  food-supply.  When  the  ground  is  hard,  and 
consequently  the  supply  of  available  natural  food  is  limited 
or  entirely  absent,  rather  more  wet  mash  should  be  given.  In 
open  weather,  and  in  districts  where  the  soil  is  rich  in  natural 
food,  the  first  feed  should  suffice  until  the  evening.  Under  other 
conditions  a  small  feed  of  grain,  together  with  green  food,  may 
be  given  at  midday.  The  last  feed  shoidd  consist  of  dry  grains, 
and  the  birds  be  allowed  to  eat  as  much  as  they  will.  The  wet 
mash  mixture  should  have  api^roximately  an  albuminoid  ratio 
of  1  :  5  in  winter  and  1  :  45  in  summer,  and  the  corn  1  :  7  and 
1  :  6  respectively. 

When  birds  are  accommodated  in  runs,  whether  these  be 
small,  for  a  limited  number  of  occupants,  or  large,  as  on  the 
American  colony  system,  they  are  said  to  be  kept  semi-intensively. 
Under  such  conditions  the  area  over  which  they  can  wander  in 
search  of  food  is  considerably  curtailed,  hence  they  are  deprived 
to  a  great  extent  of  the  natural  food  they  would  otherwise  obtain, 
as  that  is  rapidly  exhausted.  Under  this  system  the  tendency  is 
for  the  fowls  to  become  overfat  and  sluggish  in  their  habits.  A 
method  of  feeding  must  be  adopted  to  circumvent  that  result. 
As  this  system  of  poultry-keeping  is  midway  between  the  ex- 
tensive and  the  intensive  methods,  practically  any  order  of 
feeding  may  be  followed,     (a)  A  very  small  feed  of  wet  mash 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  197 

may  be  given  in  the  morning,  followed  almost  directly  with  a 
scattering  of  corn  in  the  litter,  su])iilemented  by  a  meal  of  green 
food  at  midday,  and  completed  with  a  fnll  feed  or  corn  at  night. 
(6)  The  dry  mash  hopper  system  may  be  adopted.  A  self- 
feeding  hopper  is  kept  constantly  before  the  birds,  and  grain 
is  also  scattered  in  the  litter.  Green  food  is  given  in  addition, 
(c)  Lastly,  the  grain  can  be  buried  in  the  litter,  overnight  if 
thought  desirable,  a  feed  of  green  food  be  given  at  midday,  and 
a  full  feed  of  wet  mash  at  night.  If  suitable  foods  are  emploj^ed 
in  each  case,  there  is  no  difference  in  results.  Approximately, 
the  albuminoid  ratio  of  the  mash  is  1  :  4" 75  in  winter  and  1  :  4"35 
in  summer;  of  the  corn,  1  :  66  and  1  :  5'8  respectively. 

The  intensive  system,  as  mentioned  in  a  previous  chapter,  is 
comparatively  new,  although,  in  a  different  form,  it  has  been 
followed  for  many  years  by  backyard  poultry-keepers.  Every 
precaution  must  be  taken  under  intensive  conditions  to  keep 
birds  in  store  condition.  Exercise  is  essential  to  their  w^ell-being. 
Methods  (6)  and  (c)  as  described  for  feeding  under  semi-intensive 
conditions  are  both  suitable  for  birds  that  are  kept  in  absolute 
confinement.  Method  (6)  is  better  when  large  flocks  are  housed 
together,  and  Method  (c)  when  the  pen  consists  of  only  some 
six  to  a  dozen  fowls.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  feed  coarser 
foods,  or  those  containing  a  greater  percentage  of  fibre,  but  having 
the  same  nutrient  ratio  as  above,  under  intensive  conditions. 

Animal  food  is  necessary  in  one  form  or  another  with  grow- 
ing stock  and  laying  hens.  It  will  be  noticed  that  this  is  in- 
cluded in  all  of  the  specimen  food  tables  which  follow.  An 
excellent  form  of  animal  food  is  buttermilk,  and  where  practi- 
cable that  should  always  be  employed  in  preference  to  other  kinds. 

Food  Tables. — ^It  is  obviously  impossible  to  give  a  large 
number  of  mixtures  for  feeding  under  the  conditions  enumerated 
above.  Appended  are  specimen  diets,  all  of  which  have  proved 
of  value.  Others  can  be  determined  upon  by  the  poultry- 
keeper  with  aid  of  the  table  of  analysis  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
local  market  value  of  the  various  ingredients. 


FOR  BIRDS  AT  LIBERTY. 

Winter. 

Soft  Food. 

Maizemeal 

Peameal 

Barley-meal            

Bran  (wheat)          

Potatoes  (cooked)              

Meat  (granulated  or  meal) 

3  parts. 
Ipart. 

3  parts, 
ipart. 

198 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


^V^ht■at  or  Dari 

Barley 

Maize 


Hard  Food. 


1  part. 
1     „ 


Summer. 

Sofl  Food. 
Barley-meal 
Middlings     . . 
Bran 
Clover  hay  chaff  (steamed) 


Hard  Food. 


Wheat  or  Dari 

Oats 

Dari 


2  parts. 
1  part. 
1     ,. 
1     ,. 


2  parts. 
2     „ 
1  part. 


FOR  SEMI-CONFINEMENT. 
Winter, 

Soft  Food. 


Maizemeal    . . 

Beanmeal     . . 

Barley-meal 

Bran  (wheat) 

Potatoes  (cooked 

Meat  (granulated  or  meal) 


2  parts. 

1  part. 

2  parts. 

1  part. 

2  jiarts. 
%  part. 


Dry  Mash. 

Maizemeal    . .          . .          . .  . .  . .  3  parts. 

Beanmeal     . .          . .          . .  . .  . .  1  part. 

Barley-meal            . .          . .  . .  . .  3  parts. 

Bran  (wheat)          . .          . .  . .  . .  2      ,, 

Clover-meal             . .          . .  . .  . .  1  part. 

Meat  (granulated  or  meal)  . .  . .  |      ,, 

The  meat  (granulated)  may  be  fed  in  a  separate  hopper. 


Hard  Food. 

Wheat  or  Dari 
Barley 

Summer. 

. .     1  part. 

Barley-meal 
Middlings     . . 
Bran  (wheat) 
Meat  (granulated 

Soft  Food. 

or  meal) 
Dry  Mash. 

. .     1  part. 
. .     2  parts 
. .     1  part. 

Same  as  above,  less  1  part  of  maizemeal. 

Hard  Food. 

Wheat  or  Dari 
Oats 

. .      1  part. 

THE  FEEDING  OP  POULTRY  199 

Under  the  intensive  system,  as  already  stated,  coarser  foods 
may  be  employed,  such  as  a  larger  proi^ortion  of  bran  and  hay 
chaff;  but  these  substances  must  only  be  increased  when  other 
feeding-stuffs  are  decreased  to  such  an  extent  that  the  final 
albuminoid  ratio  of  the  mixture  remains  approximately  the 
same. 

Adjuncts  to  Feeding. — There  are  certain  substances  that  are 
beneficial,  even  if  not  essential,  to  the  well-being  of  all  birds, 
and  I  j)ropose  to  treat  them  apart  from  the  ordinary  foods. 
These  consist  of  green  food,  green  bone,  grit,  charcoal,  and 
water. 

Green  food  for  poultrj^  is  essential.  Under  conditions  that 
have  already  been  described,  the  fowls  will  be  able — during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year — to  gather  sufficient  for  themselves. 
Those  that  are  kept  in  semi-confinement,  or  are  entirely  without 
the  advantage  of  a  grass  run,  must  be  provided  with  this  form 
of  food.  The  nature  of  green  food  must  necessarily  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  season  of  the  j^ear.  At  all  times,  however,  it  forms 
an  indispensable  item  in  the  diet.  It  may  consist  of  lucerne 
(exceptionally  valuable),  lettuces,  cabbage  leaves,  turnip  tops, 
swedes,  turnips,  mangold-wurzels,  or  Jerusalem  artichokes.  In 
fact,  any  form  of  succulent  vegetable  material  may  be  used. 
All  of  the  above-mentioned  green  foods  should  be  fed  in  a  raw 
state,  and  not  cooked.  The  only  food  of  a  like  nature  which 
should  be  cooked  before  feeding  is  potatoes,  which  should  not 
otherwise  be  fed.  Mention  is  made  of  artichokes,  since  these 
not  only  form  a  good  green  food — available  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year — but  the  shade  they  provide  when  growing  is 
acceptable  in  unprotected  or  exposed  positions. 

Reference  has  been  made  in  a  preceding  paragraph  to  the 
value  of  animal  food.  Green  bone  is  an  animal  product  which 
should  have  a  definite  place  in  the  list  of  feeding-stuffs.  Its 
value  has  been  considerably  overrated  as  regards  laying  stock. 
It,  however,  contains  a  large  quantity  of  phosphatic  material, 
which  is  very  beneficial  to  all  growing  birds.  The  fresh  bones 
are  cut  into  very  small  pieces,  and  fed  either  separately  or 
mixed  with  the  wet  mash. 

To  enable  the  birds  to  digest  their  food,  they  must  be  supplied 
with  grit.  This  consists  of  sharp  pieces  of  fhnt  or  stone,  which 
collect  in  the  gizzard,  and  are  there  used  for  grinding  the  food. 
If  this  is  not  obtained  naturally  by  the  birds  themselves,  it  must 
be  provided.  A  small  box  of  grit — flint  for  preference — should 
have  a  place  in  every  yard. 

Without  going  into  detail,  we  may  state  that  vegetable  char- 


200  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

coal,  and  willow  charcoal  if  possible,  is  a  very  valuable  addition 
to  the  ordinary  feeding.  Very  few  poultry-keeper.s  in  this 
country  realize  its  value,  but  I  strongly  reconnnend  its  use. 
As  a  preventive  against  disease  it  is  unequalled,  and  as  an  agent 
for  aiding  digestion  its  value  is  considerable.  The  most  satis- 
factory way  to  feed  charcoal  is  to  break  it  into  very  small  pieces 
and  feed  in  a  self-acting  hopper. 

The  last  adjunct  to  feeding  is  water.  That  is  an  essential 
item,  and  must  on  no  account  be  overlooked.  Dirty  or  stale 
water  is  readily  contaminated  by  disease  germs,  and  thus  trans- 
mitted to  the  birds ;  hence  it  must  be  given  in  suitable  fountains 
or  dishes,  and  always  be  renewed  at  least  once  every  day. 

Use  of  Condiments. — ^The  use  of  condiments  is  to  be  recom 
mended  only  in  such  cases  as  require  a  tonic  to  tune  up  the 
various  organs  of  the  body.  Condiments  are  all  stimulating  in 
effect,  hence  they  require  careful  usage.  If  this  fact  is  borne  in 
mind,  poultry-keepers  cannot  go  far  wrong.  The  continued  use  of 
large  quantities  of  any  tonic  is  bound  to  result  eventually  in  the 
organs  becoming  pathologically  affected.  During  a  spell  of 
severe  or  inclement  weather,  a  little  mustard,  or  other  condi- 
ment, may  be  given  with  good  effect,  but  on  no  account  should 
these  stimulating  substances  be  fed  after  the  necessity  has  j)assed. 
A  number  of  the  proprietary  compounds  on  the  market  are 
very  good,  but  the  cheapest  tonic  is  mustard. 

Purchase  of  Foods.' — When  purchasing  foods,  it  is  generally  a 
wise  policy  to  take  only  the  best  quality,  since  the  percentage 
of  digestible  organic  matter  is  proportionately  higher.  The  one 
exception  is  in  the  case  of  wheat.  The  first-grade  seed  is  more 
floury  than  the  second  quality' — and,  moreover,  proportion- 
ately dearer — ^therefore  the  latter  should  be  selected.  If  the 
table  of  analysis  is  studied  carefully,  it  will  prove  of  great  assist- 
ance to  the  poultry-keeper,  helping  him  to  determine  which  is 
the  most  economical  food  to  buy.  For  instance,  it  is  sometimes 
possible  to  purchase  Manchurian  millet  or  Kaffir  corn  at  a  cheap 
rate.  These  are  similiar  in  analysis  to  dari,  and  can  be  used  with 
equal  success.  One  word  of  warning  must  be  given  in  this  con- 
nection— namely,  that  it  is  unwise  to  purchase  mixed  corns  or 
mixed  meals.  It  is  impossible  to  say  exactly  the  nature  and 
quality  of  the  various  ingredients,  and,  as  they  are  generally 
sold  at  a  low  figure,  it  is  obvious  that  something  must  be 
lacking. 

Chicken  Feeding. — The  feeding  of  chickens  is  all-important. 
Upon  the  nature  and  the  quality  of  the  food  depends  the  future 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  201 

economic  worth  of  the  bird.  Injudicious  feeding  may  cause 
l^remature  death,  or  stunt  the  growth  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
bird  will  be  of  little  value  when  it  reaches  maturity. 

The  subject  of  chicken-feeding  is  fully  discussed  in  Chap- 
ter XVI.,  and  we  refer  the  reader  thereto.  The  particulars  that 
have  been  given  with  reference  to  the  feeding  of  adult  fowls 
apply  also  to  young  birds,  and  therefore  the  present  chapter 
should  be  read  in  conjunction  with  that  to  which  reference  has 
been  made. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN 

An  egg  has  been  well  described  as  "  a  mass  which  forms  in  the 
ovaries  and  oviducts  of  a  large  number  of  animals,  and  which 
in  a  common  envelope  encloses  the  germ  of  the  future  animal, 
with  the  liquids  destined  to  nourish  it  during  a  certain  lapse  of 
time,  when  the  vital  impulse  has  been  communicated  to  it  by 
fecundation  and  incubation."  This  is  true  so  far  as  fertile  eggs 
are  concerned;  but  though  the  object  of  the  egg  is  undovibtedly 
to  envelop  the  germ,  yet  impregnation  of  an  egg  by  this  germ 
has  no  influence  upon  the  actual  laying  thereof,  and  a  hen  will 
lay  at  the  proper  season  independently  altogether  of  her  being 
mated  with  a  male  bird.  Millions  of  eggs  are  laid  every  year 
which  would  never  hatch,  simply  because  they  contain  no  germ, 
not  having  been  fecundated.  It  is  a  very  common  idea,  but  an 
erroneous  one,  that  in  order  to  keep  hens  laying  they  nmst 
have  a  cock  bird  running  with  them.  That  such  is  altogether 
wrong  is  easily  proved  in  practice,  as  there  are  many  who  keep 
fowls  without  a  male  bird,  and  j^et  have  an  abundant  siipjily 
of  eggs. 

How  an  Egg  is  formed. — ^The  form  of  an  egg  is  well  known 
(Fig.  18),  with  its  two  diajueters,  one  of  its  length  and  one  of  its 
breadth,  a  small  end  and  a  large  one.  Eggs  vary  in  weight 
according  to  the  breed  and  age  of  the  hens,  but  eight  to  the 
pound,  or  2  ounces  each,  is  regarded  as  a  fair  size.  The  outer 
envelope  or  shell  is  white  or  coloured  according  to  the  species, 
and  is  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  lime,  and 
animal  gluten.  Salts  of  lime  give  the  shell  its  hardness,  and 
cause  the  particles  to  adhere.  Soft  eggs  are  those  that  have  no 
shell,  or  which  have  too  thin  a  shell,  and  are  deficient  in  salts 
of  lime.  Hence  the  necessity  for  introducing  lime  into  the 
food  of  the  fowls.  It  is  surprising  where  a  hen  finds  all  the 
carbonate  of  lime  necessary,  for  if  she  lays  100  ordinary-sized 


FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN        203 

eggs  in  the  year,  she  will  have  produced  about  22  ounces  of  pure 
carbonate  of  lime.  Thus,  as  Mr.  P.  L.  Simmonds,  F.L.S., 
observes,  if  a  farmer  has  a  flock  of  100  hens,  they  produce  in 
eggshells  about  137  pounds  of  chalk  annually;  and  yet  not  a 
pound  of  the  substance,  or  perhaps  not  even  an  ounce,  may  be 
found  on  the  farm.  The  materials  for  the  manufacture  are 
found  in  the  food  consumed,  and  in  sand,  pebbles,  brick-dust, 
pieces  of  bone,  etc.,  which  hens  and  other  birds  are  continually 
picking  from  the  earth.  Their  instinct  is  keen  for  these  ap- 
parently innutritions  and  refractory  substances,  and  they  are 
devoured  with  as  eager  a  relish  as  the  cereal  grains  or  insects. 
If  hens  are  confined  to  barns  or  out-buildings,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  egg-producing  machinery  cannot  be  kept  long  in  action, 
unless  materials  for  the  shell  are  supplied  in  ample  abundance. 
If  fowls  are  confined  in  a  room,  and  fed  with  any  of  the  cereal 
grains,  excluding  all  sand,  dust,  or  earthy  matter,  they  will  go 
on  for  a  time  and  lay  eggs,  each  one  having  a  perfect  shell,  made 
up  of  the  same  calcareous  elements.  Vauquelin,  the  distin- 
guished chemist,  confined  a  hen  for  ten  days,  and  fed  her  ex- 
clusively upon  oats,  of  which  she  consumed  7,474  grains  in 
weight.  During  this  time  four  eggs  were  laid,  the  shells  of  which 
weighed  nearly  409  grains.  Of  this  amount,  276  grains  were 
carbonate  of  lime,  17^  phosphate  of  lime,  and  10  gluten.  Of 
course,  it  is  more  than  likely  that  there  was  some  amount  of 
reserve  stock  of  shell-forming  substances  in  the  body  ere  the 
hen  was  shut  up,  and  that  if  the  experiment  had  been  continued 
longer  shell-less  eggs  would  have  been  laid.  Still,  it  is  a  fact 
that  there  is  only  a  little  carbonate  of  lime  in  oats. 

The  shell  is  porous,  or  permeable  by  the  air,  without  which  the 
chick  could  not  live  during  the  process  of  incubation.  The 
white,  fragile,  outer  envelope  is  composed  of  mineral  matter, 
but  is  not  the  light,  compact  covering  its  appearance  would  in- 
dicate, for  it  is  completely  perforated  with  a  multitude  of  minute 
holes  or  pores.  When  examined  by  the  microscope,  the  shell 
has  a  sieve-like  appearance,  very  much  resembling  the  white 
perforated  paper  sold  by  stationers.  By  means  of  these  holes 
there  is  a  constant  evaporation  going  on  from  the  time  it  is  laid 
until  it  is  consumed.  This  evaporation  depends  upon  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  egg  is  kept,  and  will  vary  in  accordance 
with  these  conditions,  being  much  more  rapid  in  hot  weather 
than  in  cold,  and  in  warm  places  than  in  cool.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  eggs  are  not  so  easily  kept  in  siimmer  as  in  winter. 
If  by  unj  means  this  evaporating  process  can  be  stopped,  and 
no  other  influence  of  an  antagonistic  nature  be  brought  into 


204 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


play,  the  egg  remains  sound  and  good  for  a  great  length  of  time. 
"Jlic  substance  used  to  close  the  pores  of  the  egg  nnist  not  be 
soluble  in  watery  fluids,  or  liable  to  be  readily  removed.  By 
means  of  chemical  agencies  the  holes  on  the  shells  of  eggs  can  be 
closed  or  filled  with  lime  placed  in  contact  in  solution,  and  the 
contents  preserved  sweet  and  good  for  months.* 

Within  the  shell  are  two  membranes  or  skins,  the  outer  one 
of  which  adheres  to  the  shell,  and  the  inner  one  slightly  to  the 
outer.  Towards  the  large  end  of  the  egg  the  two  are  separate, 
and  this  forms  the  air  chamber.     The  white  of  the  egg  partly 

consists  of  albumin,  and  is 
a  transparent  liquid,  free 
from  smell  when  the  egg  is 
fresh,  and  tasteless.  The 
albumin  coagulates  on  the 
application  of  heat  at  140°, 
and  is  insoluble  in  water. 
Chemical  analysis  has  de- 
monstrated that  it  is  com- 
posed of  carbon,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  azote,  phos- 
phorus, and  sulphur,  in 
various  proportions.  A 
part  of  the  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  evaporates 
during  incubation,  or  when 
the  egg  gets  stale.  In  the 
white  there  are  three  dis- 
tinct and  separate  layers 
of  albumin:  the  outer  (a 
liquid),  the  second  in  which 
chalazse  terminate,  and  an 
inner  layer.  The  chalazse 
are  two  twisted  cords  of  a  more  dense  albuminous  character, 
which  have  their  origin  in  the  outer  albuminous  membrane,  and 
take  the  form  of  a  spiral  cord  in  the  direction  of  the  longer  axis 
of  the  egg.  They  are  well  known  to  all  eaters  of  eggs,  and  are 
the  portions  which  cooks  take  out  when  beating  an  egg.  They 
form  a  ligament  by  means  of  which  the  yolk  remains  suspended 
in  the  midst  of  the  albumin,  with  the  germ  floating  upwards, 
and  encircled  by  the  thin  membrane  known  as  a  membrane  of 
chalazse. 

The  yolk  is  the  principal  part  of  the  egg,  and  is  separated  from 
*  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  December  9,  1887. 


Section  of  an  Egg. — A,  the  shell;  H,  mem- 
brane adhering  to  the  shell;  G,  second 
membrane,  slightly  attached  to  B,  except 
at  large  end  of  egg,  where  they  separate 
and  fonn  D,  the  air-sj)ace;  E,  the  white 
or  albuminous  part  of  the  egg  (first  layer 
liquid);  F,  the  white  of  the  egg  (second 
layer  semi-liquid);  G,  the  inner  white; 
H  H,  chalazse;  /,  outer  membrane;  J,  very 
fine  vitelline  membrane ;  K,  the  outer  part 
of  yolk;  L,  germ;  M,  yolk;  N,  utricle; 
a,  h,  c,  separate  layers  composing  the  yolk. 


FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN        205 

the  white  by  a  very  thin  enveloping  membrane,  called  the 
vitelline  membrane,  and  is  slightty  lighter  than  the  white, 
filling  the  upper  j^art  of  an  egg  when  it  is  lying  on  its  side.  It 
is  the  yolk  which  ultimatelj^  furnishes  nourishment  for  the 
embrj^o,  and  its  composition  is  richer  than  that  of  the  white. 
It  comprises  a  layer  of  white  yolk,  which  does  not  harden  even 
in  cooking,  and  within  this  are  concentric  layers  of  yellow  and 
white,  which  curve  round  the  utricle,  the  interior  part  of  which 
contains  the  germinative  vesicle.  When  the  egg  is  perfect  the 
vesicle  touches  the  vitelline  membrane,  at  the  upper  part  of 
which  is  found  the  germ,  known  from  its  j'ellowish-white  colour.^ 

The  yolk  is  composed  of  albuminous  matters,  of  organic  salts, 
of  vitelline,  of  colouring  matters  (a  red  and  a  yellow),  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  of  a  fatty  phosphoric  substance  of  itself  sufficient 
to  support  the  chick  during  its  earlier  stages. 

Process  of  Production. — The  process  of  i^roduction  of  an  egg 
is  a  most  interesting  one.  The  ovum,  or  yolk,  which,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  contains  the  germ  in  a  fertile  egg,  is  generated 
in  the  ovary,  and  so  soon  as  it  ripens  there  is  a  rupture  of  the 
ligament  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the  ovary.  Then,  passing 
down  the  oviduct,  it  is  first  impregnated,  coated  with  layers  of 
albumin,  has  the  chalazse  placed  in  their  proper  position,  and 
finally  receives  the  skins  and  outer  shell.  As  may  be  easily 
imagined,  this  delicate  organization  is  very  easily  thrown  out  of 
gear,  more  by  overfeeding  than  anything  else. 

Eggs  are  produced  from  what  may  be  termed  surplus  food, 
by  which  we  mean  such  food  as  is  not  absolutely  required  for 
sustenance  of  the  bird ;  and  if  food  be  given  in  excess  or  of  too 
stimulating  a  nature,  the  result  is,  in  the  one  case,  that  the 
organs  are  clogged  up  with  fat,  and  the  egg-laying  machinery 
stopped,  or,  in  the  other,  that  the  ovules  are  produced  too  rapidl3^ 
In  the  ordinary  course  of  things  onty  one  ovum  should  be  gener- 
ated in  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  fowl  ought  not  to  lay  more 
than  five  or  six  times  a  week.  If  two  ovules  are  produced  in 
one  day,  many  eccentricities  are  the  result,  which  puzzle  the 
poultry-keeper.  Sometimes  two  of  these  pass  into  the  oviduct 
together,  and  then  a  double-yolked  egg  is  formed.  If  this  egg 
is  set  and  the  yolks  have  been  fertilized,  then  come  some  of 
those  freaks  of  Nature  which  are  communicated  as  great  wonders. 
Occasionally  two  perfect  chickens  are  developed  and  hatched 
out  of  one  shell,  but  as  a  rule  only  one  ovum  comes  to  maturity, 
and  thus  we  get  four-legged  or  two-headed  monstrosities.  Another 
result  of  overfeeding  is  the  production  of  one  perfect  egg  within 
another.     This  is  caused  by  an  irritation  of  the  oviduct,  which, 


20G  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

contracting  in  front  of  the  perfectly-formed  egg,  instead  of 
behind  it,  forces  it  back  until  it  meets  another  yolk,  when  the 
two  join  company,  and,  again  being  coated  with  the  white  and 
the  shell,  produce  the  wonder  siJoken  of.  Soft  eggs  result  from 
overfattening  food  and  too  little  exercise,  the  ovum  passing 
down  the  oviduct  too  rapidly  for  the  secretions  to  be  properly 
applied,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  they  may  be  caused  by  absolute 
want  of  lime,  without  which,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the  shell 
cannot  be  properly  made.  None  of  these  irregularities  are 
found  in  wild  birds,  and  these  must  be  regarded  as  a  penalty 
of  domestication. 

There  is  a  great  variation  in  size  of  eggs  laid  by  different 
breeds.  Nor  is  this  variation  relative  to  the  size  of  body,  for 
many  of  the  largest  varieties  produce  comparatively  small  eggs, 
and  vice  versa.  Speaking  generally,  there  is  little  doubt  but 
that  on  the  whole  the  size  of  eggs,  and  the  fecundity  of  our 
domestic  fowls,  have  greatly  increased  within  the  last  fifty  years. 
Some  varieties  may  have  suffered  in  both  respects,  due  to  close 
breeding  and  attention  to  mere  external  qualities;  but  we  have 
many  other  breeds  that  have  more  than  taken  their  places. 

Formation  of  the  Chicken. — ^The  conditions  necessary  to  the 
development  of  a  germ  are  chiefly  heat  and  moisture.  Given 
the  presence  of  an  embryo  within  a  shell,  if  proper  heat  and  a 
sufficiency  of  moisture  are  provided,  with  daily  cooling  and 
turning  of  the  egg,  these  gradually  cause  development,  which 
results  in  the  appearance  of  a  chicken  at  the  end  of  twenty-one 
days.  In  order  that  the  germ  may  receive  heat,  there  is  a  most 
delicate  and  beautiful  arrangement  by  which  it  floats  ever  to 
the  top.  This  is  secured  b}^  the  chalazae,  which  not  only  keep 
the  3'olk  in  its  place,  but  weigh  down  the  lower  side  of  it,  and 
however  the  egg  is  turned  the  germ  floats  at  the  top.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that,  in  working  an  incubator,  regular  turning  of  eggs 
is  insisted  upon  so  strongly.  When  a  hen  is  employed,  she  does 
the  work  herself;  but  if  it  is  not  done,  there  is  danger  that  the 
heat  will  cause  yolk  and  white  to  adhere,  and  as  a  consequence 
the  embryo  dies.  Very  many  addled  eggs  are  so  caused  by  want 
of  being  properly  turned. 

As  soon  as  the  fertile  egg  is  subjected  to  proper  conditions, 
the  germ  therein  at  once  begins  to  expand,  and  within  twenty- 
four  hours  has  very  sensibly  enlarged.  The  heat  necessary  to 
secure  this  is  between  102°  and  106°.  Less  than  the  former  is 
not  sufficient  to  bring  the  germ  to  maturity,  though  100°  would 
start  it,  and  over  106°  is  most  likely,  if  maintained  for  several 
hours,  to  kill  it.     Generally  we  have  found  that  the  best  plan 


FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN        207 

is  to  keep  the  heat  as  near  103°  as  possible.  That  will  permit 
of  a  little  variation  without  danger,  and  yet  be  sufficient  to 
effectually  matiu-e  the  chick. 

Fertile  and  Infertile  Eggs. — ^A  few  words  here  as  to  infertile 
eggs  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  emphasize  what  has  already  been 
stated.  By  the  term  "  infertile  ''  is  meant  an  egg  that  has  never 
been  impregnated,  and  consequently  one  that  camiot  possibly 
hatch,  for  it  does  not  contain  an  active  germ,  and  without  this 
no  amount  of  heat  can  develop  a  chick.  The  germ  is  present  ere 
the  egg  is  formed,  and  must  be  impregnated,  and  the  contents 
are  meant  to  be  its  source  of  nutrition,  and  the  shell  its  protecting 
envelope.  The  effect  of  heat  upon  an  egg  is  to  dry  up  the  con- 
tents and  reduce  them  to  a  smaller  compass.  An  infertile  egg 
does  not  as  a  rule  go  rotten,  a  fact  not  generally  known.  With- 
out death  there  can  be  no  decay,  and  there  cannot  be  death 
unless  there  has  been  life.  Absence  of  a  fertilizing  germ  means 
that  the  contents  of  the  egg  are  inert  and  will  not  become  rotten. 
The  only  exception  to  this  is  when  an  egg  is  produced  by  a 
diseased  hen,  or  in  which  are  bacteria.  On  the  contrary,  when 
there  has  been  life,  but  this  life  has  died,  all  the  elements  of 
decay  are  within  the  shell,  and  that  which  would  have  been  its 
strength  becomes  its  weakness.  The  dead  embryo — or,  if  the 
chick  has  been  more  or  less  formed,  the  dead  chick — begins  to 
decay,  and  soon  the  whole  contents  are  a  mass  of  corruption. 
This  fact  needs  explanation,  as  many  persons  have  erroneous 
ideas  thereon. 

Position  of  the  Germ  Vesicle. — It  is  here  to  be  noted  that, 
when  an  egg  is  properly  formed,  the  germ  vesicle  always  remains 
on  the  upper  side  of  the  j^olk,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  utricle. 
The  reason  for  this  is  probably  that  it  maj^  more  easily  receive 
the  heat  necessary  to  its  development.  Turn  an  egg  as  we  like, 
the  germ  will  be  on  the  upper  side.  This  fact  teaches  us,  as  does 
the  natural  method  of  incubation,  that  the  heat  should  be  applied 
from  above,  not  below.  If  the  heat  has  to  pass  through  the 
yolk  as  well  as  white,  it  will  lose  some  of  its  power,  and  at  the 
same  time  affect  adversely  the  yolk. 

Influence  of  the  Yolk. — ^We  must  bear  in  mind  the  purpose  for 
which  an  egg's  yolk  is  intended — ^namely,  to  feed  the  chick  during 
the  period  of  its  development.  Or,  as  Marshall  says:  "The 
embryonic  portion  is  formed  from  the  part  of  the  egg  comjDara- 
tively  free  from  food-yolk,  and  becomes  converted  directly  into 
the  embryo,  while  the  vitelline  portion  or  yolk-sac,  which  con- 
tains the  bulk  of  the  food-yolk,  does  not  give  rise  directly  to  any 


208  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

part  of  the  embiyo,  but  forms  a  store  of  nutriment  at  the  expense 
of  which  the  development  of  the  embryo  is  effected.  At  first 
the  embryonic  portion  is  very  much  smaller  than  the  vitelline 
portion  or  yolk-sac,  but,  inasmuch  as  the  embryo  grows  by 
absorption  of  the  food-yolk,  the  yolk-sac  diminishes  as  the 
enibr3^o  increases  in  size.  A  time  comes  when  the  two  are 
about  equal  in  bulk,  and  in  the  later  days  of  incubation 
the  yolk-sac  is  much  smaller  than  the  embrj^o.  By  the  twenty- 
first  day  of  incubation  the  yolk-sac  is  almost  completely 
absorbed."* 

When  a  fertile  egg  has  been  laid,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
result  of  what  is  called  segmentation — realty  a  commence- 
ment of  formation  of  the  embryo  due  to  the  heat  of  the  hen's 
body — has  been  to  form  a  minute  cap  over  the  germ  vesicle, 
on  the  under-side  of  which  is  a  number  of  cells.  These  have  no 
form  indicative  of  their  later  use,  but  are  very  distinct,  and 
under  the  microscope  show  various  characters.  So  soon  as 
sufficient  heat  is  applied,  the  process,  suspended  in  the  mean- 
time, resumes  its  operations. 

First  Day  of  Development. — During  the  first  twentj^-four  hours 
the  embryo  develops  those  parts  which  afterwards  form  some 
of  the  leading  organs  of  the  body,  notably  the  head,  the  vitelline 
vein,  and  neural  fold  and  groove.  But  at  this  period  it  is  not 
easy  to  distinguish  between  the  embryo  itself  and  the  surrounding 
part,  known  as  the  area  pellucida.  Thus  early  in  the  jDeriod  is 
formed  the  amnion,  which  may  detain  us  briefly.  This  is  a 
peculiar  membrane  enveloping  the  embryo,  and  forms  a  cavaty 
in  which  this  lies.  It  is  made  in  folds,  and  "  when  the  several 
folds  meet  and  coalesce  above  the  embryo,  they  unite  in  such 
a  way  that  all  their  inner  limbs  go  to  form  a  continuous  inner 
membrane  or  sac,  and  all  their  outer  limbs  go  to  form  a  similarly 
continuous  outer  membrane  or  sac.  The  inner  membrane  thus 
built  up  forms  a  completely  closed  sac  round  the  body  of  the 
embryo,  and  is  called  the  amniotic  sac,  or  amnion  proper,  and 
the  fluid  which  it  afterwards  contains  is  called  the  amniotic 
fluid,  or  liquor  amnii.  .  .  .  The  outer  sac  over  the  embryo 
lies  close  under  the  vitelline  membrane,  while  its  periphery  is 
gradually  extended  over  the  yolk  as  the  somatopleuric  invest- 
ment of  the  j^olk-sac.  It  constitutes  the  false  amnion,  while 
the  membrane  of  which  it  forms  a  part  is  frequently  known  as  the 
serous  membrane  "f  (Plate  VII.). 

*  "  Vertebrate  Eml)ryc)logy,"  by  A.  Mihies  Marshall,  M.D.,  D.Sc,  etc. 
l^mdon,  1893. 

t  "  Elements  of  Embryology,"  by  Foster  and  Balfour      London,  1893. 


FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN        209 

Second  Day. — During  the  second  clay  the  sections  of  the  embryo 
begin  to  take  a  more  definite  form,  and  various  organs  commence 
to  assume  something  of  their  ultimate  shape.  The  head  now 
becomes  more  prominent,  and  grows  more  rapidly  than  the 
remainder  of  the  body,  for  during  the  earlier  stages  there  is  no 
relation  in  size  between  head  and  rest  of  the  body,  as  will  be 
the  case  later  on  and  after  hatching.  Here  should  be  mentioned 
that  the  embryo  is  firmer  and  more  definite  in  type  than  was  the 
case  earlier  on.  Up  to  this  point  the  head  is  straight',  and 
it  is  not  until  later  that  it  assumes  the  shape  afterwards 
maintained. 

It  may  be  stated  that  between  the  twenty-fourth  and  twentj-- 
third  hours  the  front  end  of  the  neural  canal  dilates  into  a  small 
bulb,  whose  cavity  remains  continuous  with  the  rest  of  the  canal. 
This  bulb  is  known  as  the  first  cerebral  vesicle,  and  makes  its 
appearance  in  the  early  hours  of  the  second  day.  From  its  sides 
the  two  optic  vesicles  grow  out.  Behind  the  first  cerebral  vesicle 
two  others  make  their  appearance  xery  shorth'  after  the  first, 
and  still  farther  back  two  shallow  pits  are  to  be  seen,  the  audi- 
tory pits  constituting  the  initial  stages  of  the  organ  of  hearing. 

The  heart  is  at  the  first  really  formed  within  the  head-fold, 
where  the  throat  will  afterwards  be  found,  though  that  organ 
has  not  yet  appeared.  The  heart  soon  begins  to  beat,  at  first 
slowly  and  infrequently,  but  soon  assuming  more  frequent 
pulsations.  Connected  with  it  are  the  veins,  which  will  be  more 
fully  dealt  with  when  we  describe  the  vascular  system,  but  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  during  the  latter  half  of  the  second  day 
the  blood  begins  to  flow. 

With  further  reference  to  the  head  and  brain,  Balfoiu"  states 
that  "  at  the  beginning  of  this  (second)  day  the  front  end  of  the 
medullary  canal  was  dilated  into  a  bull),  the  first  cerebral  vesicle, 
which  by  budding  off  two  lateral  vesicles  became  converted  into 
three  vesicles:  a  median  one  connected  by  short  hollow  stalks 
into  a  lateral  one  on  either  side.  The  lateral  vesicles,  known 
as  the  optic  vesicles,  have  become  converted  into  parts  of  the 
eyes;  the  median  one  still  retains  the  name  of  the  first  cerebral 
v^esicle."  On  examination,  wrinkles  are  discerned  in  the  head, 
which  "  vary  a  good  deal  in  appearance,  and  shift  from  time 
to  time,  but  eventually,  before  the  close  of  the  second  day, 
after  the  formation  of  the  optic  vesicles,  settle  down  into  two 
constrictions,  one  separating  the  first  cerebral  vesicle  from  that 
part  of  the  medullary  canal  which  is  immediately  behind  it,  and 
the  other  separating  this  second  portion  from  the  third.  So 
that  instead  of  there  being  one  cerebral  vesicle  only,  as  at  the 

14 


210  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

commencement  of  the  second  daj^  there  is  now,  in  addition  to 
the  optic  vesicles,  a  series  of  three,  one  behind  the  other;  a 
second  and  third  cerebral  vesicle  have  been  added  to  the  first." 
Towards  the  end  of  the  second  day  the  fore-brain,  with  its  optic 
and  cerebral  vesicles,  becomes  slightly  bent  downwards,  so  as 
to  form  a  rounded  obtuse  angle  with  the  rest  of  the  embryo. 
This  is  the  head-fold,  about  which  more  will  have  to  be  said. 

During  the  second  day  of  a  chick's  development  is  found  the 
first  trace  of  the  allantois,  a  temporary  arrangement  effecting 
most  important  functions  during  the  period  the  embryo  is  within 
the  shell,  and  assuming  a  more  prominent  form  during  the  thiid 
day.  It  is  part  of  the  alimentary  tract  with  which  it  opens  im- 
mediately in  front  of  the  gut,  which  tract  is  formed  by  the  primi- 
tive streak  already  referred  to.  "  At  first  it  is  enclosed  within 
the  hind-gut,  but  on  the  fourth  day  begins  to  pass  out  beyond 
the  body  of  the  chick,  and  eventually  spreads  out  over  the  whole 
body.  On  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  day  the  vesicle  is  still  very 
small,  and  its  growth  is  not  very  rapid.  Its  mesoblast  wall  still 
remains  very  thick.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  day  its  growth 
becomes  very  rapid,  and  it  forms  a  very  conspicuous  object  in  a 
chick  of  that  date.  At  the  same  time  its  bloodvessels  become 
important.  It  receives  its  supply  of  blood  from  two  branches  of 
the  aorta,  known  as  the  allantoic  arteries,  and  the  blood  is 
brought  back  from  it  by  two  allantoic  veins,  which  ran  along 
in  the  body  walls,  and,  after  uniting  into  a  single  trunk,  fall 
into  the  vitelline  vein  close  behind  the  liver  "  (Balfour).  By 
the  ninth  day  the  allantois  has  grown  enormoush^  and  has 
spread  over  the  back  of  the  embrj^o,  and  quite  halfway  round 
the  interior  of  the  eggshell.  It  lies  close  to  the  shell,  and  is  the 
medium  through  which  the  respiration  of  the  embryo  is  effected. 
On  the  twentieth  day  the  allantois  dries  and  shrivels  up,  and 
as  the  chick  steps  into  the  outer  world  it  is  cast  off  (Plate  IX.). 

Third  Day. — It  is  usually  recognized  that  the  third  day  is  the 
most  important  of  all,  in  that  so  many  of  the  new  organs  now 
begin  to  make  their  appearance.  "  On  opening  an  egg  on  the 
third  day,  the  first  thing  which  attracts  notice  is  the  diminution 
of  the  white  of  the  egg.  This  seems  to  be  one  of  the  conse- 
quences of  the  functional  activity  of  the  newly-established  vas- 
cular area,  whose  bloodvessels  are  engaged  either  in  directly 
absorbing  the  white,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  in  absorbing  the 
yolk,  which  is  in  turn  replenished  at  the  expense  of  the  white. 
The  absorption,  once  begun,  goes  on  so  actively  that  by  the  end 
of  the  day  the  decrease  of  the  white  is  very  striking  "  (Balfour). 

It  will  be  remembered^ that  during  the  second  day  of  develop- 


FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN       215 

ment  we  saw  a  commencement  of  the  head-fold,  and  this  change 
proceeds  rapidly  dm-mg  the  third  day,  by  the  end  of  which  it  is 
entirely  folded  over,  the  optic  vesicles  coming  to  the  centre,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  19,  drawn  from  a  series  of  excellent  photographs 
from  Nature,  taken  by  Mr.  Charles  Hearson,  of  Regent  Street, 
London,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  this  and  others.  At  first 
they  are  comparatively  small,  but  steadily  increase  in  size, 
finally  assuming  the  prominence  and  position  to  be  retained 
during  life.  The  shape  assumed  by  the  head  has  to  be  modified, 
for  the  brain-pan  has  yet  to  be  filled,  the  beak  and  mouth  to 
be  formed,  although  the  nostrils  and  ears  are  well  established. 
The  head  is  really  the  first  part  of  the  body  to  assume  its  shape, 


Fig.  19. — Embryo,  Third  Day. 

and  in  the  earlier  stages  is  disproportionately  large,  as  compared 
with  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  formation  of  the  eye  is  one  of 
those  wonderful  processes  so  general  in  natural  operations, 
in  which  the  needs  of  the  future  animal  are  provided  for  by  a 
multitude  of  marvellous  growths  and  evolutions.  To  attempt  a 
description  of  these  would  involve  more  space  than  can  possibly 
be  afforded. 

The  nostrils  or  organ  of  smell  is  found  to  appear  diu'ing  the 
third  day,  at  first  being  two  depressions  in  the  under-surface  of 
the  head,  immediately  in  front  of  the  eyes.  During  the  same 
IDeriod  we  find  the  alimentar}'  canal  forming  with  great  rapidit}', 
and  this  is  to  some  extent  connected  with  the  tail-fold,  in  itself 
very  similar  to  the  head -fold,  so  far  as  the  method  of  formation 


216  i'OULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

is  concerned.  Thus  we  have  the  initial  stages  of  the  digestive 
system.  And  also  lungs,  liver,  and  kidneys  are  found  to  grow, 
even  though  at  first  very  diminutive.  All  this  time — in  fact, 
from  an  early  period — the  nerves  are  exerting  a  very  important 
influence  in  the  bird's  structure. 

Fourth  Day. — Coming  to  the  fourth  day,  and  especially  the 
latter  portion  of  it,  we  find  that  there  has  been  very  rapid  pro- 
gress, an  increase  of  size  in  the  embryo  being  very  manifest. 
At  the  same  time  the  white  of  the  egg  has  diminished  still  more, 
and  the  embr^^o  is  lying  almost  in  immediate  contact  with  the 
shell.  The  vascular  area  by  this  time  is  nearly  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  there  is  a  great  increase  in  the  quantity  of  blood 
circulating  through  the  veins.  It  is  not  necessary  that  we 
should  say  more  respecting  the  head,  other  than  to  indicate 
that  the  various  parts  are  quickly  assuming  a  definite  form. 
But  the  most  striking  feature  to  be  noted  is  the  growth  of  the 
body  projjer,  from  which  the  limbs  begin  to  spring  on  the  fourth 
day,  though  they  can  be  very  slightly  traced  towards  the  end 
of  the  third  day.  At  first  they  are  simply  conical  buds  pro- 
jecting outwards,  covered  with  a  sort  of  cap.  The  front-limbs 
are  longer  and  narrower  than  the  hind-limbs,  which  are  com- 
paratively short  and  broad.  The  vertebral  column  is  now 
taking  more  definite  form,  but  not  until  the  fifth  da}-  do  we 
find  it  anything  like  complete.  And  towards  the  end  of  this 
day  is  formed  in  the  embryos  of  both  sexes  a  duct,  which  in 
the  female  forms  the  oviduct,  but  is  not  needed  in  the  male, 
and  consequently  disappears. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  during  the  fourth  day  the  genera- 
tive organs  also  begin  to  appear,  but  as  yet  they  are  very  indis- 
tinct, and  not  until  a  later  period  can  their  distinctive  features 
be  determined.  Upon  this  point  there  is  comiiaratively  little 
real  information.  Apparently  at  first  they  are  identical,  and 
at  this  period  are  termed  primordinal  ovum,  the  first  traces  of 
the  male  organ  being  discernible  about  the  sixth  day.  What  are 
yet  the  influences  towards  the  determination  of  sex  do  not  yet 
enter  within  the  range  of  exact  science,  and,  being  speculative, 
are  outside  our  present  purpose. 

Fifth  and  Later  Days. — By  the  fifth  day  "  the  limbs  have  in- 
creased, especially  in  length ;  in  each  a  distinction  is  now  apparent 
between  the  more  cylincMcal  stalk  and  the  flattened  terminal 
expansion;  and  the  cartilaginous  precursors  of  the  several  bones 
have  already  become  visible.  The  fore  and  hind  limbs  are  still 
exceedingly  ahke,  and  in  both  the  stalk  is  already  beginning  to 


PLATE  IX. 


Pkoto] 


{C.E.Ikaaon. 


1.  Embryo,  Fourth  Day,  in  Situ.  2.  Fertile]  Egg,!,  Fourteenth  Da 
3.  Fertile  Egg,  Seventh  Day.  4.  Infertile  Incubated  Egg,  Fuui 
teenth  Day.     5.  Exit  of  the  Chicken. 


EMBRYONIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHICKEN. 


FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN       219 

be  bent  about  the  middle  to  form  the  elbow  and  knee  respectively. 
The  angles  of  both  knee  and  elbow  are  in  the  first  instance  alike 
directed  outwards  and  somewhat  backwards.  By  the  eighth 
day,  however,  the  elbow  has  come  directly  backwards  and  the 
knee  forwards.  In  consequence  of  this  change  the  digits  of  the 
fore-limb  point  directly  forwards,  those  of  the  hind-limb  directly 
backwards.  This  state  of  things  is  altered  by  a  subsequent 
rotation  of  the  hand  and  foot  on  the  arm  and  leg,  so  that  by  the 
tenth  day  the  toes  are  directed  straight  forwards,  and  the  digits 
of  the  wing  backwards  and  somewhat  ventralwards,  the  elbow 
and  knee  almost  touching  each  other.  .  .  .  By  the  tenth  day 
the  fore  and  hind  extremities,  save  for  the  absence  of  feathers 
and  nails,  are  already  veritable  wings  and  feet  "  (Balfour). 

The  development  of  the  chicken  from  the  sixth  day  to  its 
appearance  from  the  shell  does  not  require  so  much  description, 
as  it  is  to  a  large  extent  growth  to  proper  size  of  the  various 
organs.  There  are,  however,  various  features  which  are  of  very 
great  interest  and  deserve  our  study. 

One  of  the  proofs  of  the  evolutionary  theory  is  that  embrj'os 
are  so  much  alike  in  the  earlier  stages.  tStriking  and  numerous 
as  are  the  features  which  render  the  class  Aves  one  of  the  most 
easily  recognizable  in  the  whole  animal  kingdom,  the  embryo 
of  a  bird  does  not  materially  differ  from  that  of  a  reptile  or  a 
mammal,  even  in  the  points  of  structure  which  are  most  dis- 
tinctly avian.  It  maj^  it  is  true,  be  possible  to  infer,  even  at  a 
comparatively  early  stage,  from  some  subsidiary  tokens,  whether 
any  given  embryo  belongs  to  this  class  or  that  (and,  indeed,  the 
same  inference  may  be  drawn  from  the  ovum  itself),  but  up  to 
a  certain  date  it  is  impossible  to  point  out  in  the  embryo  of  a 
fowl  the  presence  of  features  Avhich  may  be  taken  as  broadly 
characteristic  of  an  avian  organization.  This  absence  of  any 
distinctive  a\dan  differentiation  lasts  in  the  chick,  roughlj- 
speaking,  till  the  commencement  of  the  sixth  day.  We  do  not 
mean  that  on  the  sixth  day  all  the  organs  suddenly  commence  to 
exhibit  peculiarities  which  mark  them  as  a\ian. 

There  are  no  strongly-marked  breaks  in  the  history  of  develop- 
ment; its  course  is  perfectly  gradual,  and  one  stage  passes  con- 
tinuously into  the  next.  The  sixth  and  seventh  days,  however, 
mark  the  commencement  of  the  period  in  which  the  specializa- 
tion of  the  bird  begins  to  be  apparent.  Then  for  the  first  time 
lighter-shaded  lines  below  indicate  all  that  is  left  of  the  white. 
By  this  time  the  body  walls  are  definitely  formed,  and  rudiments 
of  the  feathers  are  already  present.  "The  head  is  still  dispro- 
portionately large,  and  the  eyes  are  of  enormous  size.     The  beak. 


220  POULTRY  HU8BiVl<DRY 

Avhith  \va«  absent  in  the  earlier  (stages,  has  now  grown  out  from 
the  front  of  the  face,  and  at  once  gi\es  the  head  a  distinctly 
avian  api^earance.  The  neck  is  long  and  slender.  The  body  is 
much  more  bulky  than  before,  laigely  owing  to  the  great  size 
of  the  heart  and  liver.  The  limbs  have  greatly  increased  in 
length,  their  several  segments  arc  well  established,  and  the 
division  of  the  distal  ends  into  lingers  and  toes  is  very  evident. 
The  white  of  the  egg  has  disai)peared,  a  thick  and  very  viscid 
mass  alone  renuiining  at  the  lower  surface  of  the  egg.  The  yolk- 
sac  is  still  huge,  but  its  walls  are  Habl>y  owing  to  the  absor])tion 
of  a  large  part  of  its  contents  as  food  by  the  embryo  "  (Marsliall). 

From  this  time  onwards  the  juincipal  business  of  the  chick, 
for  such  it  may  now  be  termed,  is  to  grow,  and  it  only  rtnuiins 
necessary  to  indicate  a  few  of  the  changes  which  take  place, 
bringing  about  the  distinctive  type  of  the  species  and  variety. 

As  already  seen,  the  feathers  begin  to  appear  on  the  ninth 
elay.  Then  the  sacs  in  which  they  are  containeel  commence  to 
force  their  way  through  the  skin,  and  by  the  thirteenth  day 
these  are  found  all  over  the  body,  to  the  length  of  |  inch,  anel 
can  be  recognized  as  feathers  by  the  nakeel  eje.  They,  how- 
ever, remain  in  the  sacs  until  hatching,  when  these  sheaths 
burst  anel  are  thrown  off. 

On  the  eighth  day  the  beak  begins  to  show  itself,  first  as  a 
chalky-looking  mass,  which  by  the  twelfth  day  has  developeel 
into  a  horny  beak,  though  still  soft.  It  is  not  until  the  thirteenth 
elay  that  the  nails  take  their  form,  and  by  the  sixteenth  elay 
these,  together  with  the  beak,  harelen  considerabh'. 

About  the  sixth  elay  movements  can  be  discerned  in  the 
embryo,  but  these  are  comparatively  slight  until  the  fourteenth 
day,  for  it  retains  the  same  position  all  this  time — luvmely,  the 
boely  is  at  right  angles  to  the  long  axis  of  the  egg.  At  the  perioel 
namcel  a  eletinite  change  of  position  is  to  be  noted,  for  the  birel 
now  moves  so  that  it  lies  lengthwise  in  the  egg,  its  beak  touching 
the  inner  shell  membrane,  the  air-space  at  the  broael  enel  having 
greatly  increased  in  size.  This  is  the  position  a  chii^k  nnist 
occupy  in  order  to  make  its  way  out  of  the  shell,  for  if  not  so 
placed  we  shall  have  a  false  presentation,  and  probably  inability 
on  the  part  of  the  chick  to  make  its  way  out. 

By  the  twentieth  day  the  chick  has  grown  so  as  to  till  all  the 
shell  except  the  air-siaace.  The  position  is  very  beautifully 
shown  by  Fig.  20,  drawn  after  Nature,  anel  from  which  the 
shell  and  membrane  have  been  removeel.  By  this  time  the  j^olk 
has  been  almost  entirely  absorbed,  anel  what  remains  in  the  sac 
is  ch'awn  into  the  body,  the  walls  closing  over  it  at  the  umbilicus. 


FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN        221 

This  yolk  serves  to  supply  the  chick's  need  for  two  to  three 
clays  after  hatching,  for  Nature  always  provides  in  this  manner 
for  the  first  separate  existence  on  the  part  of  its  creatxares. 

Process  of  Hatching. — ^^Ve  have  only  now  to  describe  the  actual 
process  of  hatching.  When  ready  for  this  work,  the  chick  has 
only  to  lift  its  head  and  pierce  the  inner  shell  membrane,  which 
it  can  easily  accomplish  under  normal  conditions,  when  it  at 
once  commences  to  breathe  the  air  contained  in  the  chamber. 
The  doing  so  causes  the  pulmonary  circulation  to  become  func- 
tionally active,  and  the  blood  now  ceases  to  flow  through  the 
umbilical  arteries.  As  a  result  the  allantois  shrivels  up.  its 
purpose  having  been  served.  The  head  is  lifted  into  the  air 
chamber,  and  the  chir-k  has  now  room  to  deal  blows  upon  ihe 


Fio.  20.— Chicken  in  Shell  (immediately  before  Hatchixo). 

shell,  which  repeated  upon  the  same  place  result  in  fracture  of 
the  shell.  Turning  round  a  little,  this  process  is  repeated,  and 
so  on  until  the  shell  is  broken  round  about  one-third  from  the 
broad  end.  When  completed,  by  pressing  its  head  against  the 
broad  end  and  its  feet  against  the  other  portion,  it  is  enabled  to 
throw  off  the  shell,  and  so  it  steps  out  into  the  world  (Plate  IX. ,  5) . 
Briefly  stated,  we  have  here  the  process  of  development ;  l)ut 
whilst  we  can  observe  and  describe  many  of  the  processes  taking 
place  within  the  shell,  the  mystery  of  life  itself,  as  of  the  in- 
fluences which  give  us  the  great  divergences  of  type  in  our  fowls, 
are  still  among  the  great  secrets  of  Nature,  who  seems  to  say, 
and  in  no  hesitating  manner,  "  Thus  far  shalt  thou  go,  and  no 
farther."  We  may  speculate  in  this  direction,  but  of  positive 
knowledge  there  is  comparatively  little. 


CHAPTER  XV 

HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL 

In  the  setting  of  hens  there  are  many  essentials  to  success. 
I  do  not  mean  that  unless  these  are  observed  hatching  is  im- 
possible, for  eggs  will  frequently  hatch  under  the  most  untoward 
conditions  and  in  spite  of  most  disadvantageous  circumstances. 
Such  a  state  of  affairs  cannot  be  reckoned  u}ion.     The  first 

/essential  to  success  is  vigour  and  stamina  of  the  stock  birds. 

^The  dangers  of  inbreeding  have  alreadj^  been  pointed  out,  and 
one  of  the  most  frecpient  residts  is  that  large  numbers  of  the 
eggs  produced  are  infertile,  or  become  addled,  or  die  during 
the  early  stages  after  hatching.  Many  instances  could  be 
cited  in  proof  of  this  contention.  Vigour  of  stock  is  absolutely 
necessary  if  the  progeny  are  to  be  healthy  and  strong,  and  we 
require  strong,  healthy,  untainted  birds  upon  good  nnis.  Con- 
ditional influences  are  also  important.  Without  parental  vigour 
all  efforts  will  be  in  vain.  Eggs  with  strong  germs  hatch  better, 
even  where  the  conditions  are  less  favourable,  than  those  where 
every  influence  is  helpful,  but  the  parents  are  weaker  in  con- 
stitution. 

Elements  in  Hatching.— ^Heat,  moisture,  and  oxygen  appear 
to  be  the  factors  at  work  in  the  production  of  chickens  from  eggs) 
Heat  is,  of  course,  supplied  by  the  hen,  who  also,  if  she  be  a  gocd 
sitter,  will  see  to  the  cooling,  though  as  a  rule  it  is  better  not  to 
trust  entirely  to  her  for  this.  Moisture  is  beyond  her  control  if 
the  place  of  sitting  is  allotted  to  her.  In  some  districts  there  is 
no  trouble  whatever  on  this  score,  as  the  atmosphere  is  natiirally 
and  sufficiently  saturated  for  the  requirements  of  eggs.  In 
others  great  care  has  to  be  taken,  or  dryness  of  the  atmosphere 
will  be  fatal  to  successful  hatching.  Seasons  also  differ.  A 
dry  spring  will  demand  more  attention  to  the  question  of 
moisture  than  a  moist  one,  and  thus  the  poultry-kee]Der  has  to 
use  his  brains  if  he  wishes  to  be  successful.  There  is  another 
222 


HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL         223 


influence  which  must  be  referred  to,  as  it  is  a  most  important 
one  to  all  those  whose  places  are  subject  to  cold  easterly  winds. 
It  needs  no  description  to  impress  this  fact  upon  most  poultry- 
keepers.  What  is  the  influence  of  east  Avinds  upon  our  fowls 
and  then-  eggs  has  never  been  satisfactorily  explained,  but  eggs 
are  less  fertile,  fertile  eggs  are  very  likely  to  be  addled,  and  hens 
often  go  on  strike,  unless  they  are  set  in  places  much  more  com- 
fortable than  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  majority  of  human  beings. 
That  explains  why  some  seasons  are  unsatisf  actor3\  Here,  again, 
vigour  in  the  parents  is  of  supreme  importance. 

Places  for  Sitters. — ^Where  only  two  or  three  batches  of  eggs 
are  to  be  hatched  during  the  season,  there  need  not  be  much 
difficulty  in  providing  for  them.  A  hen  can  be^etirLSQnae-ciuiet 
oiithouse  or  shed,  where  the  work-will  probably  go  on  without 
any  hindrance.  In  this  case,  if  the  house  or  shed  can  be  given  up 
to  the  hen  entirely,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  provide  a  square 
box  without  a  bottom, 
which,  standing  either 
upon  the  earth,  if  its 
floor  be  of  that  material, 
or  upon  sand  or  earth,  if 
it  has  an  artificial  floor, 
will  be  the  simplest 
arrangement.  This  box 
should  be  made  to  com- 
pletely cover  the  hen, 
but  without  a  front,  so 
that  she  can  leave  the 
nest  whenever  she  wishes 

so  to  do.  If  it  is  thought  desirable,  such  a  box  can  be  used  with 
a  door  in  front,  so  that,  if  necessity  should  arise,  the  hen  can  be 
enclosed.  The  form  of  hatching  box  commended  is  without  bottom 
(Fig.  21),  and  for  ordinary-sized  fowls  is  made  about  15  inches 
square,  and  18  or  20  inches  high.  The  material  (wood,  of  course) 
is  I  or  I  inch  boards,  and  it  is  built  with  solid  back,  sides,  and  top. 
The  upper  part  of  the  front  forms  the  door,  which  is  the  width 
of  the  box,  and  15  inches  high.  A  piece  of  deal  3  or  4  inches  in 
depth,  according  to  the  height  of  the  box,  forms  the  lower  section 
of  this  front,  or,  if  a  20-inch-high  box,  the  bottom  piece  may  be 
3  inches,  and  a  similar  lath,  2  inches  wide,  fixed  at  the  top  of  the 
front.  The  loose  portion  is  made  the  door,  and  is  hinged  at 
the  bottom,  fastening  to  the  top  by  a  button.  When  the  door 
is  open  it  falls  downwards,  and  thus  provides  a  firm  footing 
for  the  hen  in  entering  or  leaving  the  nest.     Three  ventilation 


Fig.  21. — Close  Hatching  Box. 


224 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


holes  should  bo  marie  in  each  of  the  sides  and  back  quite  close 
to  the  top,  a  row  al)out  4  inches  from  the  botlnni,  and  half  a 


Fio.  22. — Double  Hatching  Box  with  Ltds. 

dozen  in  the  top,  to  which  a  handle  can  be,  fitted.  They  are 
specially  needed  if  there  is  a  door  to  the  box.  ;  Wire  netting  may 
})e  stretched  across  the  bottom  as  a  protection  against  rats. 


23.— Double  Hatching  Box. 


which  is  a  very  necessary  precaution  where  these  pests  are 
troublesome.  Fig.  22  shows  a  doTd)le  })ox  with  lids,  speciallj- 
for  nse  in  hatching -rooms.     Suc^h  boxe>s  can   be  used  anywhere 


HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL         225 

whether  one  or  a  score  hens  are  set  in  the  same  place,  and  they 
can  also  be  utilized  as  lajang  boxes  when  the  hatching  season  is 
over. 

Where  only  a  few  hens  are  to  be  set,  we  should  advise  that 
later  in  the  season  (except  in  unusually  cold  weather) — say 
after  the  early  part  of  April — ^the  hens  have  their  nests  made  out 
in  the  open.  Some  shelter  will  be  necessary,  but  if  one  of  the 
hatching  boxes  be  used,  all  that  will  be  required  is  either  a 
rough  covering  or  a  coop,  or  the  hen  can  be  set  in  a  coop,  and 
then  will  not  need  to  be  disturbed  when  her  chickens  come  out. 
On  farms  there  are  often  sheds  scattered  about  which  can  also  be 
utilized.  One  of  the  difficulties  of  this  plan — at  least,  in  many 
parts  of  England — is  that  foxes  are  preserved.  A  capital 
arrangement  in  such  districts  is  a  double  sitting  box  (Fig.  23) 
with  runs. 

Hatching-Rooms. — By  the  expenditure  of  a  little  trouble, 
arrangements  can  be  made  by  which  a  large  number  of  hens  can 
be  set  in  a  single  room.  In  selecting  a  room  for  the  purpose 
of  sitting  hens,  it  is  desirable  to  have  one  as  little  subject  to 
variations  of  temperature  as  possible,  for  there  is  then  much  less 
danger  from  sudden  frosts.  It  must  be  clean  and  sweet.  If 
the  atmosphere  is  somewhat  moist,  it  will  be  none  the  worse, 
moisture  being  a  most  important  element  in  hatching  operations. 
Then,  again,  if  it  is  rather  dark  hens  will  sit  all  the  better ;  but 
in  any  case  the  sitting-room  should  be  darkened,  if  it  is  not 
already  sufficiently  so.  The  thing  to  avoid  most  of  all  is  a  hot, 
dry  place,  for  there  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  succeed  in 
hatching  operations.  The  plan  I  have  adopted,  and  with  the 
greatest  success,  is  to  place  several  of  the  hatching  boxes  already 
described  in  a  special  house,  with  their  backs  to  and  about  a 
foot  from  the  walls.  In  a  room  15  feet  square  sixteen  or  eighteen 
of  the  hatching  boxes  can  be  accommodated,  and  I  have  had  as 
many  as  twenty  at  one  time.  Each  box  should  be  at  least 
C  inches  removed  from  its  neighbour,  so  that  there  may  be  a 
free  current  of  air  all  round,  for  air  is  a  most  important  factor  in 
the  hatching  of  eggs.  Thousands  of  eggs  are  addled,  or  the 
chickens  asphj'xiated,  by  foul  air  with  which  they  are  surrounded, 
and  which  the  chicken,  if  it  can  be  so  termed  at  that  early  stage, 
within  the  shell,  is  thus  compelled  to  breathe.  There  should  be 
a  layer  of  fine  earth — say  6  or  7  inches  thick' — on  the  floor,  upon 
which  the  hatching  boxes  are  to  be  placed.  This  layer  is  better 
if  continued  entirety  around  the  room,  and  in  no  case  should  it 
be  merely  enough  for  the  box  to  stand  upon.  The  reason  for 
this  will  be  explained  afterwards.     It  will  thus  be  seen  that, 

15 


22G 


rOULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


when  the  boxes  are  all  placed  in  position,  the  doors  will  face 
towards  the  centre,  for  it  is  necessary  to  have  doors  on,  or  lids  to, 
the  hatching  boxes  when  this  plan  is  followed. 

The  form  of  hatching  house  illustrated  in  Fig.  24  is  French 
in  idea,  and  can  be  confidently  recommended.     It  consists  of  a 


shed  fitted  with  sitting  boxes  in  two  tiers.  These  boxes  differ 
from  those  already  described,  in  that  they  have  lids  on  top,  and 
the  hens  are  lifted  off  the  nest.  Outside  the  house  is  a  covered 
shed,  where  the  feeding  cages  are  placed,  as  described  in  the  next 
paragraph. 


HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL         227 

Outside  Feeding  Cages. — ^An  excellent  arrangement  (Fig.  25), 
which  has  proved  most  effective,  simplifies  the  work  where  a 
large  number  of  hens  are  sitting  at  one  time.  As  a  rule  in 
France  baskets  are  employed  with  lids  on  top,  and  the  nests 
made  in  much  the  same  way  as  already  recommended.  Outside 
the  hatching-room,  under  a  shed,  is  a  row  of  half  a  dozen  square 
coops  with  barred  fronts.  Every  day  each  hen  is  placed  in  one 
of  these  coops  for  about  half  an  hour,  in  order  to  feed  and  dust 
herself,  during  which  time  the  basket  or  the  hamper  is  left  oj)en 
so  that  the  eggs  may  be  cooled.  The  floor  of  the  coop  is  thickly 
covered  with  fine  dry  earth  or  ashes,  which  the  fowls  enjoy 
and  thus  rid  themselves  of  parasites.  If  six  hens  be  fed  at  the 
same  time,  and  each  one  be  removed  to  the  feeding  cages  in  rota- 
tion, there  is  no  danger  of  returning  them  to  the  wrong  nest. 
We  may  here  mention  that  a  mistake  is  made  in  not  cooling  eggs 
sufficiently.     Later  observations  have  shown  that,  with  a  room 


Fig.  25. — Feeding  Cages  for  Sitters. 

temperature  above  45°,  an  hour  is  not  too  long  after  the  first 
week.  More  harm  is  done  by  under  than  over  cooling,  for  there 
is  much  truth  in  the  old  sajdng,  "  A  close  sitter  is  a  bad  sitter." 

Making  the  Nests. — In  making  the  nests  within  the  boxes,  a 
shovelful  of  earth  or  ashes  is  first  placed  therein,  and  then 
hollowed  out  into  saucer  shaj)e,  taking  care  that  all  the  corners 
are  filled,  lest  any  of  the  eggs  roll  there  and  be  chilled.  There 
are  breeders  who  use  damp  grass  sods,  but,  as  the  object  of 
both  earth  and  sods  is  to  give  that  cool  dampness  which  is  so 
essential  to  successful  hatching,  earth  is  to  be  preferred,  as  it 
can  be  made  to  fill  up  the  box  better.  Upon  this  earth  a  nest 
is  made  of  fine  straw,  oaten  preferred,  and  which  is  all  the  better 
if  well  beaten  or  rubbed  in  the  hands  before  being  placed  in  the 
nest.  When  completed,  the  nest  should  be  slightly  below  the 
level  of  the  cross-piece  at  the  front.  The  eggs  should  have  no 
tendency  to  roll  out,  but  always  strongly  incline  to  the  centre  of 
the  nest.     As  a  rule,  when  eggs  are  placed  in  a  hatching  box. 


228  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

and  a  broody  hen  piit  down  before  it,  she  will  go  on  at  once  of 
her  own  accord.  Sometimes,  however,  that  is  not  so.  A  de- 
sirable plan,  therefore,  in  setting  hens,  when  they  are  put  to  a 
strange  nest,  is  to  let  them  have  a  few  addled  or  dummy  eggs 
at  first.  This  is  to  j)revent  valuable  eggs  being  wasted.  When 
boxes  with  lids  are  employed,  the  hens  must  be  placed  on  the  nest. 

Cooling  and  Feeding. — If  there  are  twelve  or  fifteen  hens  sitting 
at  one  time,  and  all  these  have  to  be  liberated  for  feeding  and 
dusting  separately,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  attention  of  someone 
will  be  pretty  fully  taken  up.  The  hens  must  be  allowed  out 
daily,  and  they  cannot  be  let  out  together,  or  there  will  be  con- 
flict, resulting  in  general  disaster.  That  can  be  obviated  by  the 
plan  already  recommended.  If  the  time  of  an  attendant  can  be 
given  to  the  sitting  hens,  a  simple  way  is  to  open  the  door  of 
each  box  in  turn,  give  the  hen  half  an  hour,  then  close  her  in, 
and  open  the  next.  Should  any  not  have  come  off,  they  must 
be  lifted,  both  for  their  own  sakes  and  the  cooling  of  eggs.  The 
earth  or  ashes  below  the  box  will  provide  much  of  the  moistness 
needed  b}^  the  eggs;  but  in  a  very  diy  place,  or  during  dry 
weather,  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  earth  moist  by  pouring  on  it, 
around  the  box,  a  jMnt  of  hot  water  daity.  This  is  much  to  be 
preferred  to  moistening  eggs  themselves,  a  plan  which  does 
more  harm  than  good.  Nests  should  be  examined  every  day. 
When  a  hen  has  to  be  lifted  off,  as  where  lidded  boxes  are  used, 
it  is  necessary  to  exercise  very  great  care  in  doing  it,  to  avoid 
breaking  any  eggs.  Hens  usually  tuck  the  eggs  tightly  under 
their  wings,  especially  when  disturbed;  and  if  a  hen  be  lifted 
up  bodily,  the  chances  are  all  in  favour  of  an  egg  droj^ping  down 
upon  others  in  the  nest  and  making  a  general  smash.  Some- 
times an  egg  is  accidentally  broken,  and  the  contents  adhere  to 
her  breast  and  to  the  shells  of  eggs  remaining  in  the  nest.  If 
this  be  the  case,  a  further  breakage  is  certain  to  result  iniless  the 
matter  be  put  right.  Should  a  hen  foul  her  nest,  which  should 
never  take  place  if  she  is  let  out  at  regular  periods,  the  same 
result  may  accrue.  It  is  to  prevent  this  kind  of  thing  that  wc 
advocate  daily  examination  of  nests.  And  as  it  is  desirable  not  to 
allow  a  hen  to  be  disturbed  more  than  is  necessary,  that  should 
take  place  at  the  time  of  feeding. 

Hens  should  be  fed  on  hard  grain,  such  as  wheat,  or  barley, 
or  oats.  They  should  be  provided  with  fresh  water  daily,  and 
have  a  good  dust  bath. 

Hatching  by  Turkeys. — In  some  parts  of  France  large  numbers 
of  chickens  are  hatched  under  turkeys,  and  the  same  i)lan  has 


HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL         229 

been  tried  successfully  in  this  country.  Should  a  hen  turkey 
become  broody  in  her  first  year,  when  it  is  inadvisable  to  breed 
from  her,  she  may  be  usefully  employed  in  this  manner.  Not 
only  will  she  cover  twice  the  number  of  eggs  and  brood  three 
times  the  number  of  chickens  that  can  be  given  to  an  ordinary 
hen,  but  she  is  most  reliable,  is  less  affected  by  weather,  and 
ready  when  called  upon  at  three  or  four  days'  notice.  Moreover, 
the  male  birds  can  be  used  in  this  way  as  well  as  the  females. 

Choice  of  Eggs  for  Hatching. — Selection  of  eggs  to  be  used  for 
hatching  purposes  does  not  usually  receive  the  attention  which 
its  importance  demands.  Given  that  such  selection  has  been 
from  birds  mated  specially  for  reproductive  values,  the  eggs 
themselves  must  be  carefully  chosen.  Those  that  are  abnormal 
in  size,  whether  over  or  under  the  average,  in  shape,  or  shell 
formation,  should  be  rejected.  What  we  have  to  seek  for  is  a 
strong-shelled,  well-shaped  egg,  which  may  be  slightly  above 
the  average  in  size,  as  there  is  always  present  the  tendency 
towards  recession  to  the  normal  in  the  last-named  direction. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  size  of  egg  has  little  actual 
correlation  to  the  ultimate  size  of  bodj^  of  the  chicken  from  it. 
Many  of  the  breeds  which  produce  large  eggs  are  small-bodied, 
and  vice  versa.  At  the  same  time,  size  of  egg  for  marketing  is 
an  important  factor  in  the  realizable  values.  If  undersized  eggs 
are  selected  for  hatching,  we  are  breeding  from  the  hens  that 
lay  these,  and  passing  on  to  the  next  generation  the  same 
tendency.  By  selection  the  size  of  egg  can  be  materially  im- 
proved in  a  few  generations,  and  small  eggs  be  eliminated.  At 
the  same  time  this  must  be  done  gradually  and  with  judgment. 
Eggs  which  are  much  larger  than  the  average  of  the  breed  are 
often  infertile,  and  in  any  case  are  weaker  than  those  conforming 
to  the  usual  standard.  Eggs  should  also  be  used  as  fresh  as  possible. 
If  held  even  for  a  few  days,  they  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place. 

Register  of  Hatching. — It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  a  book 
containing  a  register  of  the  hatching  operations,  so  that  records 
can  be  kept  for  reference,  both  present  and  future.  Each  sitting 
box  should  have  attached  to  it  a  card  or  label,  easily  seen  by  the 
attendant.     The  following  is  a  simple  form  for  the  purpose: 

Breeds  of  eggs 

Date  set     . .  . .  . .  . .  

Date  to  hatch       . .  . .  .  .  

Number  of  eggs    . .  . .  . .  

Number  fertile  on  seventh  day  ..  

Eggs  broken  . .  . .  . .  

Chickens  hatched  . .  . .  

Remarks    . .  . .  . .  . .  


230 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


Testing  the  Eggs. — At  one  time  many  poultry-keepers  had  a 
divided  objection  to  interfering  with  the  eggs  during  the  time  of 
sitting.  That  has  been  shown  to  be  a  sentimental  objection,  for 
there  are  very  many  advantages  in  testing  them.  When  hens  are 
doing  the  work,  or  the  eggs  are  in  incubators,  the  eggs  should  be 
tested  during  the  process.  This  is  preferably  on  the  seventh 
day,  and  then  by  candle  or  lamp  light.  The  object  of  this  test 
is  to  see  how  many  of  the  eggs  are  fertile,  so  that  those  that  are 
clear  can  be  taken  away;  and  as  they  are  still  good  for  culinary 
purposes,  it  will  be  evident  on  that  account  alone  there  is  a  very 
strong  argument  in  favour  of  the 
system.  In  large  establishments 
some  hundreds  of  eggs  can  be  saved 
every  year  in  this  manner,  which 
will  represent  a  respectable  item  in 
the  year's  returns.  There  is  another 
and  still  more  important  argument 
in  its  favour — namelj^,  the  space 
occupied  by  these  useless  eggs  can 
be  filled  up,  and  the  work  either  of 
hen  or  machine  be  used  for  such 
eggs  as  are  of  real  value  for  hatching 
purposes.  For  instance,  if  thi'ce 
hens  are  set  at  one  time — and  two 
or  three  should  always  be  set  to- 
gether— and  on  the  first  examina- 
tion it  is  found  that  one-third  of 
the  eggs  are  infertile,  when  the 
useless  ones  are  removed  there  will 
be  just  sufficient  for  two  hens, 
and  the  third  hen  can  be  set  again 
with  a  fresh  batch  of  eggs.  The 
fact  is  that  this  test  enables,  as 
a  rule,  as  many  chicks  to  be 
hatched  with  two-thirds  the  number  of  hens  which  would  be 
needed  under  the  other  system.  Coming  to  the  method  of 
examination.  Fig.  26  represents  external  appearance  of  eggs 
when  tested  by  light  during  the  process  of  development.  First 
remove  all  eggs  from  the  nest,  cither  when  the  hen  is  feeding  or 
after  lifting  her  off  for  the  purpose,  and  hold  them  between  a 
candle  or  lamp  and  the  eye.  The  best  time  to  do  this  is  at  night, 
and  a  candle  or  lamp  can  be  }ilaccd  at  a  convenient  height  for 
the  purpose.  Then  take  an  egg  in  the  left  hand,  holding  it 
between  the  forefinger  and  thumb,  using  the  other  fingers  of  the 


2nd  day.  5th  day. 

8th  day.  11th  day. 

19th  day.  Infertile  or 

addled  egg. 

Fig.  2G.— Appearance  through 
Shell  during  Incubation. 


HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL 


231 


hand  as  a  shade  to  keep  the  light  from  the  eye.  The  right  hand 
is  next  put  around  the  part  of  the  egg  left  exposed,  and  the 
fuigers  of  that  hand  used  also  as  a  shade  (Fig.  27).  The  object 
is  to  only  permit  the  light  to  be  seen  bj^  the  eye  through  the  body 
of  the  egg,  and  a  very  little  practice  will  enable  anyone  to  hold 
it  properly.  Some  use  black  cardboard,  cutting  in  it  an  oval 
hole  scarcely  so  large  as  the  egg;  and  there  are  also  egg-testers 
sold  at  about  a  shilling  each,  made  of  tin  covered  partially  with 
black  cloth.  These  are  perhaps  the  simplest,  though  we  have 
always  been  able  to  test  much  more  quickly  when  using  only 
the  hands,  as  ah'eady  described. 
In  Fig.  28  is  shown  a  powerful 
testing  lamp,  bj'  which  the  germ 
can  be  distinguished  at  forty- 
eight  to  sixty  hours.  When  the 
egg  is  fertile,  the  appearances  ^vill 


Fig.  27.- 


-HOW    TO   TEST   AN    EgG 

Candlelight. 


28.— Testing  Lai 


be  seen  as  in  Fig.  26.  In  this  way  we  can  tell  whether  the  egg  is 
fertile.  If  infertile,  it  is  clear  to  the  end,  no  matter  how  long 
it  is  sat  upon. 

Incubators  and  their  Use. — Artificial  incubation  has  fascinated 
many  minds  for  several  centuries,  and  those  who  object  to  the 
adoption  of  this  system  may  perhaps  be  surprised  to  learn  that 
for  nearly  2,000  years  artificial  hatching  and  rearing  have  been 
followed  in  Egypt,  China,  and  other  countries.  The  Egyptian 
egg  ovens  offer  the  most  striking  example  of  what  can  be  carried 
out  in  the  modification  of  natural  methods.  It  has  been  stated 
that  there  are  at  the  present  time  in  Lower  Egj^pt  several  hundred 
of  these  hatching  establishments,  in  some  cases  with  a  capacity 


232  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

of  40,000  eggs  at  one  time.  No  useful  purpose  would  be  served 
in  giving  a  description  of  these  ovens,  which  are  evidently  of  a 
most  primitive  character,  and  dej)end  upon  the  skill  of  the 
operator  to  a  remarkable  extent.  The  operators  are  members 
of  families  who  have  carried  on  the  work  for  centuries,  and  hire 
themselves  out  to  the  proprietors  for  the  hatching  season.  In 
the  ovens  no  effort  seems  to  be  put  forward  to  secure  ventilation 
or  regulation  of  temperature,  and  heat  is  engendered  by  the 
burning  of  dried  camel  dung  on  shelves  above  the  eggs,  the 
latter  being  placed  in  heaps  upon  the  floors.  I  have  endeavoured 
from  time  to  time  to  obtain  some  reliable  figures  as  to  the 
jDcrcentage  of  hatching,  but  without  success.  In  one  case,  how- 
ever, I  was  informed  that  the  loss  of  eggs  by  death  in  shell  is 
enormous,  amounting  frequently  to  as  much  as  60  per  cent. 

The  first  records  with  which  we  are  familiar  as  to  any  attempts 
in  Western  Euroj)e  are  contained  in  a  work  written  by  M.  c^e 
Reaumur,  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris,  the  English 
edition  of  which  was  published  in  1750.  M.  de  Reaumur  tried 
many  methods,  including  the  Chinese  system  of  hatching  by 
means  of  dung,  obtaining  the  necessary  heat  from  decomposition 
of  that  material.  The  results  were  not  encouraging.  During 
the  last  century  many  attemj)ts  were  made  in  this  direction. 
At  the  first  great  International  Exhibition  in  1851  an  incubator 
was  exhibited,  made  by  M.  Cantello,  and  which  commanded  a 
large  amount  of  attention.  It  was  on  a  large  scale,  and  the 
inventor,  believing  that  the  heat  was  communicated  to  the  eggs 
by  actual  contact  of  the  hen,  used  india-rubber  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  tank,  resting  it  upon  the  eggs.  The  machine  did  not 
command  any  amount  of  success,  and  soon  passed  into  oblivion. 
Manj'  other  attempts  were  made.  The  first  I  had  personal  ex- 
perience with  was  the  "  Bojde  "  incubator  in  1877 — a  most  in- 
genious machine,  but  far  too  intricate  and  expensive.  A  little 
later  a  smaller  machine  was  patented  on  the  Cantello  principle, 
but  from  want  of  an  efficient  method  of  regulation,  in  which  the 
"  Boyle  "  was  almost  perfect,  and  from  the  fact  that  large  num- 
bers of  the  chicks  hatched  were  crushed  by  the  weight  of  the 
water  and  the  sagging  of  the  india-rubber,  it  did  not  succeed. 
These  and  other  machines  were  far  too  intricate,  cumbersome, 
and  costly,  and  it  was  not  until  the  year  1878,  when  M.  Rouiller, 
Princii^al  of  the  French  School  of  Aviculture  at  Gambais,  intro- 
duced his  hydro-incubator,  that  this  system  of  hatching  became 
at  all  practical.  The  machine  named,  which  is  still  used  in  a 
modified  form  to  some  extent  in  France,  had  no  lamp  or  regulator, 
the  heat  being  maintained  by  the  removal  of  a  portion  of  the 


HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL         233 

water  in  the  tank  every  twelve  hours,  and  the  substitution  of  a 
relative  quantity  of  boiling  water.  Although  under  these  con- 
ditions fine  regulation  was  impossible,  I  hatched  very  success- 
fully with  it.  The  trouble  involved,  however,  was  considerable. 
Modifications  of  this  machine  were  made,  but  it  is  not  too  much 
to  say  that  the  introduction  of  the  "  Hearson  "  incubator  in  1883 
made  the  adoption  of  the  sj'stem  possible  to  a  degree  not  known 
previously.  ]\Ir.  Hearson's  invention,  which  is  fully  described 
later,  was  in  all  respects  a  remarkable  advance  upon  anything 
that  had  gone  before,  and  brought  the  system  within  the  compass 
of  poultry-keepers  of  every  grade.  To  the  gentleman  named 
poultrj^-keepers  in  all  parts  of  the  world  owe  a  great  debt,  and 
his  invention  has  extended  the  opportunities  of  poultry -keepers 
to  a  degree  never  yet  fully  recognized. 

Are  Incubators  Practical  ?— Within  the  past  few  years  the 
increase  of  artificial  methods  of  hatching  and  rearing  chickens 
has  been  enormous.  When  incubators  were  first  brought  out 
they  were  very  unreliable,  but  the  experience  gained,  and  the 
increase  of  knowledge  as  to  the  opportunities  underlying  this 
system,  have  led  to  a  realization  of  the  importance  of  hatching 
by  other  than  the  natural  methods.  Much  of  the  increase  of  use, 
however,  is  due  to  the  undoubted  growth  of  the  poultry  industry 
in  this  countrj^  to  which  artificial  hatching  has  contributed, 
and  it  has  been  found  again  and  again  that  those  who  were  more 
progressive  and  adopted  the  newer  methods  succeeded  where 
others  had  failed.  Thus  the  laggards  have  been  compelled  in 
self-defence  to  follow  in  their  footsteps.  The  use  of  incubators 
at  one  time  was  practically  confined  to  fanciers  and  amateurs, 
and  to  a  few  of  those  who  kept  poultry  for  profit,  but  this  is  no 
longer  the  case.  Instead  of  being  a  fad  on  the  part  of  the  few, 
artificial  hatching  is  now  a  practical  necessitj\ 

The  great  advantage  offered  by  incubators  is  the  increase  of 
power  on  the  part  of  the  breeder.  Instead  of  being  limited  in 
his  hatching  by  the  vagaries  or  natural  instincts  of  his  hens,  he 
is  now  in  a  position  to  hatch  at  almost  any  season  of  the  j'ear. 
One  of  the  results  of  our  breeding  during  the  paso  twenty  years 
has  been  to  reduce  the  suj^ply  of  broody  hens,  owing  to  the 
development  of  egg  production.  This  in  itself  is  partially  the 
result  of  the  introduction  of  artificial  methods,  because  breeders 
dare  not  have  bred  for  egg  production  to  the  same  extent  if  they 
had  been  compelled  to  depend  upon  hens  alone.  The  use  of 
incubators  has  been  enormously  increased  from  this  fact,  and 
also  the  wide  dissemination  of  the  non-sitting  varieties.  To  use 
an  American  expression,  there  can  be  no  question  that  incubators 


234  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

"  have  come  to  stay/'  and  it  is  difficult  to  realize  what  our 
position  would  have  been  without  them.  Nor  are  incubators 
used  in  isolated  instances,  and  many  of  those  who  read  these 
pages  would  be  surprised  to  find  the  number  of  machines  which 
may  be  at  work  upon  one  place.  Poultry  breeders  with  six  to 
ten  incubators  are  common,  and  there  are  a  few  instances 
where  from  twenty  to  a  hinidred  are  now  in  use  at  one 
establishment. 

Use  of  Incubators. — Believing  that  the  future  of  the  poultry 
industry  in  this  country  largely  depends  upon  the  adoption  of 
artificial  methods  of  hatching  and  rearing,  it  is  desirable  to  indi- 
cate the  reasons  for  that  opinion.  The  irregularitj^  of  hens  at 
other  than  the  ordinary  season  has  been  a  frequent  complaint. 
Not  only  are  these  uncertain  as  to  when  they  will  become  broody, 
but  there  is  always  an  amount  of  risk  that,  should  the  weather 
become  suddenly  colder,  they  may  desert  the  eggs,  which  is  a 
very  serious  matter  early  in  the  season  and  with  valuable  eggs. 
Moreover,  every  hen  has  to  lay  a  number  of  eggs  before  she 
evinces  any  signs  of  broodiness,  and  these  may  be  more  valuable 
as  potential  chickens  than  for  marketing  purposes.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  use  them  unless  other  hens  are  available  or  we  have  an 
incubator.  By  machines  we  can  hatch  at  any  season  of  the  year 
when  fertile  eggs  are  to  be  obtained,  which  is  an  important  con- 
sideration for  early  chickens  and  for  pullets  intended  to  lay  the 
following  winter.  A  further  recommendation  is  that  with  the 
great  increase  of  non-sitting  varieties  of  poultrj^  and  the  gradual 
elimijiation  of  those  breeds  which  set  early  and  often,  breeders 
are  finding  sitters  scarcer  everj^  year;  many  of  the  most  popular 
varieties,  even  though  thej^  are  sitters,  by  reason  of  having  been 
bred  to  develop  production,  are  comparatively  late  in  becoming 
broody.  We  do  not  desire,  however,  to  dethrone  the  hen  from 
her  position.  The  better  plan  is  to  use  both  systems.  Until 
hens  are  ready  to  commence  work  we  must  depend  upon  incu- 
bators; so  soon  as  they  show  the  instinct,  then  it  is  desirable  to 
take  advantage  of  it. 

Limitations  of  Artificial  Methods. — At  the  same  time,  nccessaiy 
though  artificial  methods  arc,  and  acknowledging  the  vast  im- 
provements made  in  these  machines,  the  fact  has  become  evident 
that  these  are  second-best,  and  that  there  is  something  in  Nature's 
own  way  which  no  machine  invented  has  been  able  to  supply. 
Whether  this  problem  will  ultimately  be  resolved  it  is  impossible 
to  suggest.  Careful  observations  over  a  very  long  period,  and 
extended  experience  in  many  countries,  have  made  that  fact  evi- 


HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL  235 

dent.  In  some  cases  the  mortality  in  incubator  chickens  has 
been  enormous.  I  do  not  attribute  that  to  the  use  of  incubators 
alone,  but  to  a  combination  of  influences.  In  fact,  I  am  inclined 
to  the  opinion  that  machine  hatching  has  been  responsible  to 
the  smaller  extent.  In  many  instances  those  who  have  used 
incubators,  in  addition  have  kept  the  breeding  stock  within 
confined  areas,  have  bred  almost  entirel}^  from  pullets,  and  fed 
upon  forcing  lines,  often  using  closelj^  related  birds,  all  of  which 
have  made  for  degeneracy,  although  the  final  bad  results  are 
unfairly  attributed  to  the  incubator  alone. 

The  question  is  therefore  a  very  serious  one.  In  experience  I 
have  found  that,  taking  a  whole  season's  operations,  which  is 
the  real  test,  the  percentage  of  chickens  hatched  was  higher  under 
hens  than  with  incubators,  and  that  the  chickens,  when  reared 
for  stock  or  lajing  purposes,  have  greater  constitutional  vigour. 
All  that  we  have  been  able  to  learn  and  do  has  not  enabled  us 
to  reach  the  natural  standard.  Incubators  are  an  absolute 
necessit}^  but  their  position  is  to  supplement,  not  take  the  place 
of,  hens.  Wherever  and  whenever  possible,  the  latter  should  be 
employed  for  production  of  breeding  stock,  lea^^ng  the  machines 
to  hatch  layers  and  table  chickens  or  ducklings,  in  which  direc- 
tions the  opportunities  are  greater  than  ever.  I  do  not  suggest 
than  an  incubator  may  not  be  employed,  say,  for  bringing  out 
early  birds.  It  is  their  persistent  use  year  after  year  that  is  to 
be  avoided  in  the  breeding  of  stock  birds. 

Hen  Oil. — A  theory  has  been  advanced  of  late  that  chickens 
hatched  b}^  artificial  methods  lack  something  which  is  imparted 
to  the  egg  by  the  hen,  and  the  fact  is  cited  in  support — which 
must  be  obvious  to  all  observant  poultry-keepers — that  the 
shells  of  eggs  under  hens  are  coated  with  a  very  fine  film  of  oil. 
The  suggestion  made  is  that  this  oil  imparts  a  degree  of  \igour 
to  the  chick  which  cannot  be  obtained  M'hen  artificial  methods 
are  employed,  or  that  it  prevents  evaporation.  Such  a  sugges- 
tion has  met  with  a  considerable  amount  of  opposition.  Dis- 
cussing this  question  with  the  late  M.  Van  der  Snickt  of  Brussels, 
he  informed  me  that  in  Belgium  the  reason  why  artificial  methods 
of  hatching  had  not  in  raanycases  been  adopted  by  the  peasants 
in  some  districts,  is  that  they  strongly  hold  the  opinion  here 
expressed.  He  stated  that  it  is  a  common  practice  on  the  part 
of  Belgian  peasants  to  kill  an  old  hen  and  to  rub  the  eggs  over 
with  part  of  her  fat,  even  when  these  are  to  be  covered  by  hens. 
Upon  this  point,  however,  we  have  no  definite  information, 
and  cannot  do  more  than  simply  mention  the  theory  as  put 
forward. 


236  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Incubator  Houses. — ^Tlic  increase  of  artificial  incubators  has 
developed  the  need  for  arrangements,  where  this  work  is  carried 
out  upon  a  large  scale,  suited  to  those  conditions.  In  many 
places,  where  only  one  incubator  is  used,  it  is  not  at  all  difficult 
to  provide  that  the  machine  shall  be  kept  quiet  and  supplied 
with  the  attention  and  management  it  requires.  If  we  multiply 
the  number  considerably,  it  then  becomes  necessarj^  to  make 
other  arrangements.  It  is  easity  understood  that,  if  only  one 
incubator  is  at  work  in  a  room,  the  amount  of  influence  upon 
the  atmosphere  by  the  burning  of  an  oil-lamp  for  maintaining 
the  temperature  would  be  comparatively  small ;  but  if  there  were 
a  dozen  incubators,  the  exhaustion  of  oxj^gen  would  be  very 
rapid  indeed.  Hence  experience  has  shown  that,  unless  great 
care  is  taken  in  this  direction,  there  is  danger  of  the  results  being 
less  satisfactory  when  operations  are  upon  the  larger  scale. 
That  is  so,  however,  in  all  departments  of  life ;  what  can  be  done 
on  a  small  scale  does  not  necessarily  follow  when  the  amount  of 
work  accomplished  is  greatly  increased.  In  America,  poultry 
breeders  have  of  recent  years  largely  adoj)ted  the  system  of 
incubator  cellars,  as  they  are  called,  the  greater  part  of  which 
is  underground,  but  that  system  has  not  been  found  necessary 
in  our  own  country.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  in  America 
the  winters  are  very  much  colder  and  the  summers  hotter  than 
with  us,  and  these  incubator  cellars  have  been  devised  specially 
to  counteract  the  extremes  in  one  direction  or  the  other.  There 
can  be  no  question  that  for  one  or  two  machines,  and  in  the  ab- 
sence of  a  special  house,  a  cool,  sweet  cellar  is  one  of  the  best 
places  for  incubator  work,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  it  is  cooler 
in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter  than  an  ordinary  building 
above-ground.  In  many  cases,  unless  they  are  specialty  built, 
ventilation  is  bad,  and  there  is  frequently  a  close  smell  which 
betokens  impurity  of  atmosphere, 

I  have  been  much  surprised  in  visiting  some  poultry  plants  to 
note  the  disregard  of  efficient  ventilation,  and  that  the  object  is 
to  crowd  as  many  machines  as  possible  into  a  given  space,  both 
of  which  conduce  to  failure.  Eggs  containing  living  embryos  all 
the  time  are  practically  breathing,  certainly  after  the  first  week. 
A  constant  circulation  of  air  is  required  to  carry  from  the  egg 
the  gases  formed,  and  to  replace  these  by  oxygen,  which  can  only 
be  if  the  atmosphere  is  pure  and  abundant.  Overcrowding 
involves  denial  of  suitable  conditions,  and  want  of  efficient  ven- 
tilation lack  of  what  is  the  most  important  element.  In  our 
incubator  house  (Fig.  29)  we  allowed  2  cubic  feet  of  air- 
space for  every  egg  undergoing  the  j^rocess,  and  that  is  the  mini- 


HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL         237 

mum,  combined  with  a  constant  circulation  of  fresh  air,  in  the 
direction  of  successful  operation.  In  this  country  an  above- 
ground  building  is  to  be  preferred  for  larger  incubator  houses, 
and  in  these  ventilation  is  much  easier  of  accomplishment. 

In  this  connection  I  describe  an  incubator  house  which  was 
used  most  successfully.  The  accommodation  in  the  house  was 
for  twelve  incubators,  although  there  was  sufficient  room  to  place 
other  four  should  they  be  reqiiired.  The  house  (Fig.  29)  was  32  feet 
in  length  by  16  feet  in  width,  divided  into  two  sections,  one 
27  feet  by  16  feet,  and  the  outer  room  or  porch  5  feet  by  16  feet. 
The  whole  stood  upon  concrete  foundations,  with  a  floor  of 
Staffordshire  tiles,  so  that  it  was  solid  and  firm.  The  walls  were 
8  feet  6  inches  in  height  at  the  eaves,  rising  to  11  feet  at  the 
apex  of  the  gable,  and  the  walls  made  of  double  boarding,  the 
wood  employed  being  red  deal  an  inch  in  thiclviiess,  and  well  put 
together.  Between  there  was  a  lining  of  felt.  The  roof  consisted 
first  of  inch  boarding,  upon  which  was  laid  felt,  and  covered 
finally  with  corrugated  iron.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  substantial 
character  of  the  building  had  the  effect  of  making  the  incubator- 
room  less  subject  to  outside  atmospheric  influences  than  would 
be  the  case  if  the  walls  and  roof  were  built  of  lighter  material. 
Fig.  31  shows  the  ground-plan  of  shed. 

In  a  building  of  this  kind  the  consumption  of  oxygen  in 
the  atmosphere  when  twelve  lamps  are  burning,  and  also  to  supply 
the  1,200  eggs — which  was  the  capacity  of  the  machines  at  work 
— must  be  verj^  considerable,  and,  after  careful  consideration  of 
this  question,  a  system  of  ventilation  was  adopted  which  was  a 
novelty.  Outside  were  eight  3-inch  pipes,  their  terminals  5  feet 
above  the  ground,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  These  were 
carried  down  outside  to  within  a  foot  of  the  floor,  and  then 
entered  the  building,  the  air  passing  through  regulating  gratings 
inside,  so  that  the  current  could  be  controlled.  The  object  of 
bringing  the  air  in  below  the  level  of  the  machines  was  in  order 
that,  as  it  ascended,  such  as  was  required  for  the  eggs  could  pass 
directly  into  the  incubators  without  being  contaminated  by  the 
lamps,  whilst  at  the  same  time  the  lamps  themselves  were  sup- 
plied with  perfectly  fresh  air.  In  the  apex  of  the  gables  we  had 
large  regulating  ventilators,  so  that  the  air  entering  a  little  above 
the  floor  was  drawn  upwards  to  the  lamps  and  the  machines, 
and  then  passed  out  above.  This  method  of  ventilation  proved 
an  ixnqualified  success.  During  warmer  weather  more  air  could 
be  given  by  opening  the  windows.  It  may  be  explained  that 
these  windows — of  which  there  were  four — were  all  on  the  east 
side  of  the  house.     Under  no  circumstances  should  windows  in 


238  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

incubator  sheds  be  on  the  south  side,  or  even  on  the  west,  be- 
cause during  the  hotter  months  of  the  year  that  would  raise  the 


temperature  of  the  room  to  a  very  large  extent.     In  order  to 
provide  against  excessive  heat,  this  incubator  house  was  placed 


HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL 


239 


under  the  shade  of  a  very  large  wahiiit-tree,  keeping  it  cool  in 
summer. 

As  already  explained,  the  building  was  divided  into  two  parts 
— namely,  the  larger  room  for  the  incubators  themselves  (Fig.  30) ; 


and  the  outer  room,  where  the  stores  were  kept  and  the  lamps 
were  cleaned.  This  outer  room  was  fitted  with  cupboards,  the 
tops  of  which  were  covered  with  lead,  for  cleaning  and  refilling 
the  lamps,  and  thus  there  was  no  danger  of  oil  being  spilled  near 
the  incubators.     Large  double  doors  opened  from  the  outside. 


240 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


first  into  the  small  room,  and  from  there  into  the  inciihator-room. 
Inside  were  tables  for  cooling  and  testing  the  eggs.  These  were 
fitted  with  flanges,  so  that  as  the  eggs  were  tested  thej^  could  be 


UTOR 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

5 

laid  upon  the  tables  without  any  danger  of  rolling  off.  For  the 
work  of  testing,  the  shutters  fitted  to  the  windows  could  be  closed. 
Of  course,  the  cost  of  a  house  such  as  described  is  considerable, 
but  it  is  imiDossible  to  work  successfully  under  antagonistic  con- 


MATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL         241 

ditions,  and  those  who  go  in  for  incubation  upon  a  large  scale 
will  find  that  the  capital  exj)ense  is  justified. 

Types  of  Machines. — One  result  of  the  great  increase  in  the  use 
of  incubators  has  been  to  stimulate  their  production,  and  many 
machines  are  now  offered  for  sale.  So  long  as  the  Hearson 
patents  were  in  force,  that  type  stood  alone,  and  there  was 
no  serious  competitor.  With  the  removal  of  any  restriction, 
we  have  many  others  which  are  confessedly  copies  of  the 
"  Hearson,''  and  are  sold  as  such,  in  some  cases  with  minor  modi- 
fications. Within  the  last  few  years  a  new  class  of  incubator 
has  appeared,  on  what  is  known  as  the  hot-air  principle,  and 
it  will  be  sufficient  if  we  select  for  description  one  representative 
machine  of  each  class.  In  selecting  an  incubator,  we  must  look 
to  excellence  of  manufacture,  but  primarily  to  the  principle  upon 
which  it  works.  The  struggle  is  between  the  tank  and  hot-air 
machines,  both  of  which  have  their  advocates.  Our  predilection 
has  been,  and  is  yet,  in  a  variable  climate  such  as  that  prevailing 
in  the  United  Kingdom  for  the  tank  machine  under  ordinary 
conditions.  We  have  found,  however,  the  "  Cyphers  "  to  yield 
satisfactory  results.  This  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  in 
our  incubator  shed  the  variations  of  temperature  were  minimized 
greatly,  and  the  most  favourable  conditions  provided.  The  fact 
that  incubator  cellars  are  largelj^  employed  in  America  may 
explain  why  hot-air  machines  have  there  met  with  so  great  a 
success,  though  a  better  knowledge  of  essential  factors  in  incuba- 
tion, and  consequent  modification  in  the  machines,  has  helped 
this  result.  In  selecting  the  "  Hearson  "  and  "  Cyphers  "  incu- 
bators as  representatives  of  their  respective  types,  we  do  so  with- 
out suggesting  that  other  appliances  are  not  equally  efficient. 

Tank  Incubators. — ^The  English  incubator  which  has  attained 
the  greatest  amount  of  success  is  the  "  Hearson  "  (Fig.  32),  and 
its  widespread  use  in  all  parts  of  the  world  stamps  it  as  an  almost 
perfect  machine.  It  is  excellently  designed  and  carefully  made, 
with  a  marvellously  delicate  regulator,  well  applied  to  the  purpose 
in  view.  The  regulator  consists  of  a  small  metal  capsule,  formed 
of  two  pieces  of  thin  brass  sheet,  soldered  together  at  the  edges. 
Inside  are  about  twenty  drops  of  a  liquid  which  boils  at  the  tem- 
perature required  to  be  maintained  (104°).  So  long  as  this 
capsule  is  not  subjected  to  sufficient  heat  to  make  the  contents 
expand,  the  pieces  of  brass  remain  close  together,  but  when  the 
warmth  is  high  enough  they  distend  considerably.  The  power 
thus  generated  is  used  to  work  a  lever,  by  means  of  which  a  cap 
is  raised  from  the  escape  chimney.     The  hot  air  from  the  lamp, 

16 


242 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


instead  of  entering  into  a  tube  running  through  the  water  tank, 
passes  o&,  and  the  temperature  immediatelj'  sinks  again.  We 
have  known  this  regulator  keep  an  incubator  to  within  half  a 
degree  for  weeks,  in  spite  of  var^nng  weather.  The  eggs  are  laid 
in  a  concave  drawer  upon  perforated  zinc,  below  which  is  a 
water  traj^ ;  and  as  fresh  air  can  only  enter  from  below,  and  has 
to  pass  through  a  cloth  soaked  with  water,  it  becomes  charged 
with  moisture,  by  which  means  this  important  element  is  pro- 
vided for.     All  that  is  required  is  to  see  that  the  air  is  not  very 


Fig.  32. — ^Hkakson  &  I^cLBAToIi 

cold  as  it  enters  the  inlet,  for  then  there  is  danger  of  too  little 
water  being  absorbed  b}'  it.  The  "  Hearson  "  incubator  is  made 
in  several  sizes,  from  a  dozen  eggs  upwards,  but  we  prefer  the  use 
of  those  of  fifty  to  two  hundi'ed  egg  capacity,  as  these  are  found 
more  reUable.  Further  details  are  given  in  the  section  di-a"wing 
on  p.  243  (Fig.  33). 

Hot-Alr  Incubator. — ^This  machine,  as  already-  explained,  is  of 
American  make,  and  has  been  largelj-  sold  in  Europe.  Its 
external  appearance  is  shown  in  Fig.  34.  Not  ha\'ing  a  tank 
considerabh'  reduces  the  cost  of  production,  but  it  differs  dis- 


HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL 


243 


tiuctly  in  other  respects  from  the  machines  which  are  ahnost 
universal  here,  apart  from  the  question  of  hot  an-.  In  the  fu'st 
place,  the  method  of  ventilation  is  altogether  changed;  there  is 
no  bottom  supply  of  an-,  nor  are  there  any  holes  for  either  inlet 
or  escape  in  the  egg  chamber  of  the  machine.  In  appearance  wo 
have  the  same  compact  bod}^  with  a  lamp  at  one  side.  Fresh 
air  is  drawn  upwards  by  the  side  of  the  lamp,  and  is  moistened 


Fig.  33. — Section  of  Hearson's  Incubator. 


A  A. — Tank  of  water. 

B  B. — ^lovable  egg  tray. 

C  C— Water  tray. 

D  D  D. — -Holes  for  fresh  air. 

E  E. — -Ventilating  holes. 

F. — ■Damper. 

G.  Lever. 

H.— Lead  weight. 

K  K. — Slips  of  wood. 


LLL. — 'Lamp  chimney  and 
flue  pipe. 

M  M  iL  —  Non  -  conducting 
material. 

N. — -Tank  themiometer. 

0. — -Needle  for  communica- 
ting the  expansion  of 
the  capsule  S  to  the 
lever  G. 


P. — -Milled  head  screw. 

R.— Filling  tube. 

S. — Thermostatic  capsule. 

T. — Petroleum  lamp. 

V. — -Chimney  for  discharge  of 

surplus  heat. 
W.— Chimney   for  discharge 

of    residual    products 

of  combustion. 


The  overflow  tube  is  the  upper  one,  situated  at  the  right-hand  side  of  incubator,  and 
the  lower  tube  is  for  emptying  the  tank. 


in  so  doing,  the  heated  air  passing  into  an  upper  chamber  above 
the  egg  drawer  without  being  affected  by  the  fumes  of  the  lamp. 
The  air  chamber  has  at  the  bottom  a  framework  upon  which  is 
stretched  felting,  which  should  be  replaced  every  two  or  three 
5'ears,  through  which  the  heat  has  to  find  its  waj^  downwards. 
It  will  be  realized  that  in  this  passage,  which  must  be  compara- 
tively slow,  there  are  no  streams  of  hot  air,  and  the  heat  is  dis- 


244 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


tributed  by  diffusion,  which  secures  regularity  and  uniformity  of 
temperature.  The  heat  now  passes  do vvn  through  the  egg  chamber 
and  into  a  lower  chamber,  from  which  it  is  drawn  outwards  bj' 
the  heat  of  the  lamp.  It  is  claimed  in  this  way  that  there  is  an 
even  distribution  with  regidar  circulation,  and  that  therefore  an 
even  temperatiu-e  is  maintained.  At  first,  in  machines  of  this 
class,  moisture  was  not  sui)plied,  as  it  was  said  that  there  is 
always  enough  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  to  supply  the  needs 
of  the  chickens.  That  is  no  longer  suggested,  as  nearly  all  in- 
cubators of  this  t3'j)e  have  a  moisture  supply  near  the  lamp. 
The  absence  of  a  moisture  traj'^  does  away  with  the  necessity 
of  an  influx  of  cold  air,  and  therefore  all  the  air  j^assing  into  the 
machine  is  warmed.  The  makers  state  that  as  it  enters  the  air 
increases  in  moisture,  and  by  the  time  it  reaches  the  air  chamber 

its  relative  humidity  is  equal 
to  that  of  the  outer  air.  The 
regulator  consists  of  a  double- 
action  thermostat.  It  is  many 
years  since  the  thermostat 
was  first  tried  in  this  country, 
and  given  up  because  it  was 
less  delicate  than  the  capsule 
invented  and  introduced  b}'^ 
]\Ir.  Hearson.  The  makers  of 
the  "Cyphers," however,  have 
now  greatly  improved  the 
thermostat,  and  the  power  is 
more  than  sufficient  to  main- 
tain regularity  of  temperature. 
The  fumes  from  the  lamp 
escape  by  a  chimney,  over  which  a  cap  is  placed  similar  to 
that  met  with  in  various  English  machines,  and  is  regulated 
by  that  cap.  There  are  several  other  points  in  this  incubator 
which  are  interesting.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  no  drying 
box;  the  trays  do  not  quite  fill  the  egg  chamber,  and  the 
chickens  coming  forward  to  the  light — as  there  are  windows 
inserted  in  front — drop  down  below  the  egg  tray  and  remain 
underneath.  This  is  an  interesting  change  which  could 
scarcely  be  adopted  with  safety  if  the  inlet  of  air  were  from 
below,  but,  as  the  hot  air  descends  upon  the  eggs,  the  air  is  not 
contaminated  by  the  chickens.  Trays  are  provided  divided 
into  different  compartments,  so  that  the  eggs  from  different 
breeds  may  be  kept  in  the  same  incubator,  and  distinct  for 
registration  and  rearing  purposes. 


Fig.  34. — "Cyphers"  Incubator. 


HATCHING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL     245 

Mammoth  Incubators. — ^The  egg  ovens  of  Egypt  are  hatching- 
rooms  rather  than  incubators.  Within  recent  years  many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  in  this  direction  m  Europe  and  America, 
more  especially  the  latter,  due  to  the  enormous  advance  of 
poultry  husbanch-y,  to  the  establishment  of  large  poultry  farms, 
and  to  the  trade  in  day-old  chicks  supplied  from  hatching  centres, 
in  all  of  which  economy  of  labour  is  an  important  consideration. 
In  practice,  however,  it  has  been  found  that  the  form  referred 
to  was  not  successful.  Regulation  of  temperature  was  very 
difficult  under  such  conditions,  and,  also,  I  am  of  opinion  that  the 
massing  of  great  numbers  and  reduction  of  ventilation  to  conserve 
heat  explain  the  failures.  As  a  result,  the  types  which  have  been 
introduced  of  late  are  heated  from  one  source.  In  this  way  one 
of  these  "  Mammoth  "  incubators  may  have  a  capacity  for  almost 
any  number  of  eggs.  That  there  will  be  an  increasing  demand 
for  apparatus  of  this  kind  cannot  be  questioned.  How  far  it 
will  extend  is  a  question  to  be  determined.  Their  use  will  be 
restricted  to  the  few,  and,  generally  speaking,  it  will  always  be 
that  the  majority  of  farmers  and  others  will  prefer  to  have  their 
owTi  machine,  in  wliich  case  smaller  incubators  are  likely  to  be 
more  profitable.  From  the  fact  that  changes  are  taking  place 
in  the  types  of  large  incubators,  I  do  not  attempt  any  description, 
as  those  now  in  use  may  be  changed. 

Management  of  Incubators.— The  fact  of  having  an  incubator 
is,  however,  not  in  itself  the  primary  question.  These  machines, 
however  ornamental  and  well  made  they  may  be,  are  absolutely 
useless  unless  they  effect  the  purpose  in  view — ^namely,  the 
hatching  of  strong,  liveable  chickens.  Hence  the  importance 
of  proper  management.  For  more  than  sixty  j'-ears  it  has  been 
possible  to  hatch  chickens  artificially.  In  the  earlier  days, 
undoubtedly,  these  birds  were  very  inferior  in  natural  vigoiu"  to 
those  brought  out  by  orcUnary  methods,  due  to  many  causes 
with  which  it  is  unnecessary  at  the  present  time  to  deal ;  in  fact, 
it  was  at  one  time  an  axiom  that  chickens  could  be  hatched  arti- 
ficially, but  not  reared.  The  explanation  was  that  they  lacked 
stamina  and  strength.  The  consequence  was  that,  even  where 
the  percentage  produced  was  a  satisfactory  one,  the  number 
reared  was  exactly  the  reverse.  For  a  long  time  it  was  not  easy 
to  understand  the  reason  for  this  state  of  things.  Part,  un- 
doubtedly, depended  ui)on  the  treatment  of  the  chickens  after 
they  emerged  from  the  shell.  I  beheve  that  some  of  the  mor- 
tality in  chickens  was  owing  to  the  system  of  removing  them 
from  the  incubators  very  speedily  after  they  were  hatched,  as 
well  as  to  coddling  during^thejDeriod  of  raising.     More  however. 


246 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


was  due  to  a  failure  in  realization  of  several  points  in  respect  to 
the  machines  themselves.  Experience  has  shown  that  success 
with  any  incuhator  depends  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  even- 
ness of  temperature,  but  even  more  to  the  arrangement  for  the 
supply,  during  the  entire  period  of  development,  of  fresh,  pure 
air.  A  badly-ventilated  incubator  woidd  undoubtedly  residt  in 
a  large  number  of  chickens  dead  in  shell,  varying  in  the  extent 
of  their  development,  to  some  degree,  upon  the  vigour  of  the 
embryo.  In  seeking  to  conserve  the  heat,  the  danger  with  many 
machines  was  that  the  chickens  whilst  in  the  shell  were  not 
supplied  with  the  amount  of  oxygen  reqiiisite  for  their  develop- 
ment. Until  this  point  was  understood,  there  can  be  no  question 
that  incubators  were  most  unreliable  and  doubtful  as  to  their 
value.  The  inventor  of  the  "  Hearson  "  incubator  must  be  given 
credit  for  being  amongst  the  first  to  make  provision  for  a  constant 
supply  of  fresh  air.  At  the  same  time,  even  with  a  machine  so 
good  as  the  "  Hearson,"  much  depended  upon  the  conditions 
under  which  it  was  placed.  Any  mechanism  can  only  operate 
sviccessfully  within  its  limitations. 

An  important  point  is  the  temperature  at  which  incubators 
should  be  operated.  If  we  were  able  always  to  keep  machines 
in  the  usual  spring  temperature — say  60°  F. — attention  to  this 
point  would  be  needless.  But  we  have  to  provide  against  varia- 
tions, and  must  act  in  accordance  therewith.  Our  object  is  to 
keep  the  eggs  whilst  hatching  as  near  102°  F.  as  possible,  as  that 
is  about  the  heat  of  a  hen.  In  the  majority  of  incubators  it  is 
impossible  to  keep  the  registering  thermometer  among  the  eggs, 
as  it  would  either  not  be  seen  easily  or  would  be  liable  to  break. 
Hence,  in  nearly  all  makes  it  is  above  the  eggs.  For  that  reason 
it  does  not  record  the  actual  temperature,  but  of  the  stratum  of 
air  immediately  above.  In  a  machine  with  bottom  ventilation, 
and  in  which  is  constantly  going  on  a  conflict  between  the  heat 
from  above  and  the  cool  air  entering  below,  the  difference  js 
greater  than  where  the  air  circulates  downwards;  but  in  both 
cases  every  inch  makes  an  appreciable  difference .  For  these 
reasons,  the  temperature  at  which  a  tank  incubator  is  worked,  as 
represented  by  the  thermometer,  should  be  varied  in  accordance 
with  the  following  table  (hot-air  machines  one  degree  less) : 


Degrees  F. 

Degrees  F. 

Degrees  F. 

Degrees  F. 

70 
103 

Room 

Egg  chamber 

40 
106 

50 
105 

60 
104 

80 
102 

HATCHING,  NATUEAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL  251 

It  will  be  found  that  running  incubators  on  this  basis  will 
maintain  eggs  all  through  at  practically  the  same  temperature. 

Moisture. — ^That  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  is  required  in 
the  air  surrounding  the  eggs  during  the  incubatory  period  is  an 
luidoubted  fact;  but  even  at  this  date,  after  upwards  of  thirty- 
five  years  in  the  practice  of  artificial  hatching,  it  is  impossible 
to  state  with  any  degree  of  certainty  what  weight  of  water  vapour 
per  cubic  foot  of  air  is  necessary.  In  practically  all  incubators, 
whether  of  the  tank  or  hot-air  type,  some  means  are  provided 
of  adding  moisture  to  the  air  in  the  egg  chamber.  In  machines 
of  the  former  type  this  addition  is  brought  about  by  use  of  a 
water  tray  under  the  egg  drawer;  in  the  latter  type  a  damper 
which  delivers  its  moisture  to  the  ingoing  air  is  employed.  As 
it  is  impossible  to  give  any  definite  figures  in  this  connection, 
we  advise  all  operators  to  adhere  strictly  to  the  instructions 
given  by  the  maker  of  the  incubator  they  are  working. 

The  whole  question  of  the  influence  of  moisture  in  incubation 
requires  solution,  but,  although  experimenters  are  working  along 
this  line,  no  definite  results  have  accrued.  It  is  our  opinion  that, 
for  the  successful  hatching  of  a  large  number  of  liveable  chickens, 
all  eggs  should  lose  a  definite  proportion  of  their  original  weight 
during  the  first  nineteen  days  of  incubation,  but  at  the  present 
there  is  no  simple  way  of  determining  the  exact  rate  or  extent  of 
the  loss.  Until  such  time  as  more  exact  information  is  to  hand, 
the  advice  given  above  should  be  followed. 

General  Hints. — ^The  following  general  hints  should  be  observed 
by  all  incubator  workers,  in  addition  to  directions  sent  out  by 
makers  of  each  machine : 

1.  Place  the  machine  where  there  will  be  a  constant  supjily  of 
fresh  an-,  but  carefully  avoid  draughts. 

2.  If  possible,  keep  the  temperature  of  the  room  at  from  55° 
to  65°  F. 

3.  See  that  the  water  trays  are  regularly  supplied  with  water, 
which  should  be  first  warmed. 

4.  Always  warm  eggs  before  putting  into  the  machine  by 
washing  in  water  heated  to  80°  F.  This  is  specially  imjDortant 
when  there  are  eggs  already  in  the  drawer. 

5.  Mark  the  eggs  with  the  date  when  put  in,  and  that  when 
due.  Also,  if  there  is  no  turning  apparatus,  put  signs  "  X  "  and 
"  0  "  on  two  sides  to  know  how  far  they  should  be  turned.  This 
should  be  done  twice  a  day,  but  must  be  once. 

6.  Cool  the  eggs  twice  a  day,  for  ten  minutes  in  winter,  and 
for  fifteen  minutes  in  summer;  but  if  the  room  is  warm  longer 


252  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

eooling  is  recommended.  In  tank  machines  the  lamp  flame 
should  bo  lowered  or  removed  whilst  the  eggs  are  being  t\u-ned 
and  cooled. 

7.  Observe  the  temperature  of  egg  di-awer  whenever  the  in- 
cubator is  attended  to,  as  a  guide  to  its  correct  worldng. 

8.  Do  not  open  the  egg  drawer  too  often  whilst  hatching  is 
proceeding;  when  the  chicks  are  out,  remove  the  empty  shells, 
and  place  the  chicks  in  drying  box,  where  one  is  provided. 

9.  Always  keep  the  lamp  clean,  properly  supplied  with  oil, 
and  do  not  burn  it  higher  than  is  necessary. 

10.  See  that  there  are  no  vibrations  or  jarring  shocks  in  the 
incubator -room,  as  these  cause  deformity  in  the  chickens. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

REARING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL 

Provision  for  rearing  chickens  varies  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  does  hatching.  In  this  direction  there  can  be  no  absohite 
uniformity.  Much  depends  upon  the  conditions  available  and 
the  opportunities  presenting  themselves.  A  further  point  is 
that,  whilst  the  natural  and  artificial  methods  of  rearing  must 
necessarily  differ,  practically  speaking  the  period  during  which 
such  differences  exist  only  extends  over  the  first  six  to  eight  weeks 
of  life,  after  which  these  disappear.  When  the  birds  are  intended 
for  early  killing,  the  system  of  growing  adopted  is  a  non-natural 
one,  in  whatever  manner  the  chicks  are  hatched  and  reared. 
That  aspect  of  the  case  is  dealt  with  in  succeeding  chapters. 
Therefore,  whilst  there  must  be  differentiation  as  to  the  early 
stages  of  rearing,  such  disappears  at  a  later  period. 

Place  to  Rear. — Chickens  require  dry  conditions,  more  espe- 
cially in  the  cooj)  or  house  where  they  spend  the  nights,  and  also 
on  the  surrounding  ground.  Damp  is  fatal  to  them,  more  so 
than  any  influence  against  which  they  have  to  contend.  The 
ideal  spot  is  on  the  southern  slope  of  a  hill  on  which  are  an 
abundance  of  bushes  or  trees.  If,  however,  such  could  alone  be 
used,  that  would  limit  the  work  to  a  comparatively  few  people. 
All  others  must  make  the  best  possible  use  of  their  conditions,  as 
these  cannot  be  altered.  At  the  same  time  there  is  generally  a 
measure  of  choice.  The  prime  factors  are^ — first,  a  dry,  kindly 
soil,  well  drained,  so  as  to  rapidly  carry  off  the  water  in  wet 
weather;  second,  for  early  broods,  a  position  which  at  one  and 
the  same  time  enables  them  to  take  advantage  of  all  the  sunshine 
there  may  be,  and  yet  protects  them  against  strong,  cold  winds 
and  driving  rain ;  and,  third,  that  the  soil  shall  be  good,  containing 
as  much  of  natural  food  as  possible,  more  especially  after  the 
infantile  stage  has  passed.  Sand  is  deficient  in  this  respect,  and 
should  be  avoided.  Insect  and  grub  life,  and  green  food,  are 
necessary  to  healthy  and  rajjid  growth,  and  exercise  in  seeking 
2.53 


254 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


for  the  former  conduces  to  development.  Clay  soil,  b}'  reason  of 
its  cold  nature,  retards  growth.  Whilst  that  is  not  serious 
where  birds  are  intended  to  be  matured  as  laj'ers,  for  table  birds 
it  would  cause  an  increase  of  cost  in  feeding,  and  the  birds  would 
never  be  as  good  in  flesh  qualities.  One  jaoint  nmst  be  empha- 
sized— ^that  during  hot  weather  exposure  to  intense  sunlight  is 
detrimental,  and  at  the  period  named  as  much  shade  should  be 
given  as  possible.  What  we  have  to  do  is  to  guard  against 
extremes  of  heat  or  cold,  and  to  conform  as  far  as  possible  to 
the  natural  rearing  season. 


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Fig.  35. — -Chicken-Rearinl;   ix  Oiuii 


Chicken  Houses  or  Sheds. — ^During  the  ordinary  period  of  the 
year,  whether  the  birds  are  reared  in  coops  or  brooders,  the  plan 
to  be  universally  adopted  is  to  place  these  out  in  the  open. 
When,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  undertake  this  work  in  the 
winter  season  or  very  early  in  the  year,  a  house  or  shed  m  which 
the  coop  or  brooder  can  be  placed  is  valuable  in  the  extreme,  as 
it  affords  the  shelter  which  is  essential,  more  esjiecially  as  the 
chicks  then  bred  are  usually  of  the  more  susceptible  races,  less 
able  to  withstand  adverse  conditions.     Under  these  conditions. 


REARING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL  255 

if  they  are  to  be  reared  artificially,  and  the  number  warrants  the 
cost,  the  plan  commended  is  to  build  a  brooder  house  as  described 
later.  One  of  the  best  arrangements  I  have  ever  seen  consisted 
of  a  large,  lofty,  open-fronted,  thatched  shed,  about  60  feet  in 
length  and  20  feet  deep,  wherein  the  coops  were  placed,  and  the 
chicks  given  freedom  to  range  within  its  limits.  They  were 
practically  in  the  open  air  all  the  time,  and,  as  the  floor  was 
thickly  covered  with  fresh  earth  from  time  to  time,  they  found 
abundance  of  exercise.  The  practice  was  to  use  this  only  in 
bad  or  very  cold  weather,  and  to  move  the  coops  outside  whenever 
fine.  It  would  hardly  pay  to  erect  such  a  structure,  and  on  few 
places  is  one  available.  When,  however,  that  is  the  case,  even 
if  used  for  other  purposes  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
it  will  help  materially  m  the  work  of  winter  rearing.  This  is 
not  a  question  of  coddling — for  that  is  an  economic  blunder — 
but  merely  of  equalization  of  the  conditions.  If  the  operations 
warrant  erection  of  such  a  structure,  it  need  not  be  out  of  use 
when  vacated  by  the  chickens,  as  it  may  be  found  useful  for  other 
purposes,  such  as  a  fatting  shed,  or  even  as  a  house  for  layers, 
or  for  growing  chicks  which  camiot  be  out  in  the  open. 

Coops  and  Cooping. — If  only  a  few  batches  of  chickens  are  to 
be  raised  uj)on  a  farm,  suitable  provision  can  easily  be  made  for 
them.  Each  hen  and  her  brood  can  be  provided  with  quarters 
in  sheds  or  outbuildings,  and  be  given  freedom  during  the  day. 
With  extension  of  the  work,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  coop  the 
hens,  not  alone  for  shelter  and  protection,  but  to  prevent  injury 
to  chickens,  as  hens  are  usually  very  pugnacious. 

Many  different  forms  of  coops  are  in  use,  some  of  which  are 
too  elaborate  and  needlessly  expensive.  The  simpler  these  are, 
the  better.  When  coops  are  out  on  open  fields,  it  is  necessary 
that  they  shall  afford  protection  against  enemies — ^not  merety  the 
predatory  fox,  but  the  insatiable  rat — otherwise  anj^thing  more 
than  a  simple  box  with  open  front  is  not  required.  Even  under 
the  circumstances  named,  whatever  leads  to  insufficiency  of 
ventilation  is  harmful  in  the  extreme,  and  it  is  m  that  direction 
where  so  many  coops  are  unsatisfactory.  As  to  size,  I  am  con- 
fident that  it  would  be  preferable  if  coops  were  somewhat  larger 
than  at  present — say  about  2  feet  square — as  that  would  allow 
a  greater  amount  of  room  and  of  air-space  for  the  inmates. 

Where  the  front  is  barred — and  that  should  alwaj's  be  the  case 
— ventilation  is  provided  for.  Upon  drier  soils  a  wooden  floor 
is  undesirable,  and  the  inmates  are  much  more  comfortable  even 
without  hay  or  straw.  If  rats  are  troublesome,  fine  meshed-wire 
netting  may  be  stretched  across  the  bottom,  in  which  case  a 


256 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


handful  of  soft  covering  material  is  necessary.  On  very  cold  or 
damp  ground  a  wooden  floor  ma}'  be  used,  but  nailed  upon  cross- 
pieces,  so  that  the  floor  boards  do  not  rest  upon  the  earth.  This 
should  bo  loose  from  and  fit  inside  the  coop,  thus  facihtating 
cleaning.  It  may  be  dispensed  with  altogether  when  the  con- 
ditions are  more  favourable.  Coops  should  be  well  limewashed 
out  and  kept  rigidly  clean. 

Forms  of  Coops. — It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  at  length  the 
different  forms  of  coop  in  general  use,  some  of  which  are  repre- 
sented in  the  illustrations.     As  already  stated,  these  appliances 


Fig.  36. — Coop  made  from  Sugar  Box. 

may  be  made  very  cheaply.  In  the  Illustrated  Poultry  Record 
was  described  one  which  is  within  the  limits  of  all,  consisting  of 
a  Tate  sugar  box.  This,  with  a  few  nails  and  an  hour's  work, 
will  form  a  handy,  serviceable  coop,  that  may  be  used  as  a  sitting 
box  also,  at  a  cost  of  4-|d.  To  make,  the  lid  must  be  taken  off 
the  box,  and  the  nails  removed,  when  they  can  be  straightened 
and  used  again.  One  side  will  form  a  floor,  if  required,  and  the 
other  should  be  carefully  taken  off.  Two  of  the  lid  strips  must 
be  cut  as  a  long  triangle,  3  inches  at  the  front  to  1  inch  at  the 
back,  and  fastened  above  the  open  sides,  with  four  narrow  pieces 
inside  to  hold  them  firm.     The  laths,  taken  from  the  open  side. 


REARING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL 


257 


must  now  be  nailed  above  the  sloping  pieces,  and  with  a  strip 
from  the  lid  will  make  a  top  having  the  requisite  slope  to  carry 
off  the  rain.  There  will  be  just  enough  remaining  of  the  lid 
to  cut  into  bars  for  the  front,  two  of  which  should  be  made  loose 
to  let  the  hen  in  and  out. 

One  of  the  earliest  forms  is  the  Sussex  coop  (Fig.  37),  which  is 
still  largely  used.  It  is  triangular  in  shape,  and  presents  at 
front  the  appearance  of  an 
A.  This  generally  stands 
about  24  or  27  inches  high 
in  the  centre,  and  is  the 
same  width  at  the  ground. 
The  sides  and  back  are  solid, 
but  the  front  is  made  of  up- 
right laths,  one  of  which  is 
loose,  so  that  when  raised 
the  hen  can  get  out.  Of 
course,  the  laths,  as  in  all  coops,  are  sufficiently  apart 
to  allow  the  chicks  to  pass  between  them.  It  usually  has  no 
floor,  but  in  such  dry  districts  as  Surrey  and  Sussex  a  floor  is 
not  needed  in  any  coop.  This  type  may  be  regarded  as  old- 
fashioned,  but  it  is  none  the  worse  on  that  account. 

Another  is  shown  in  Fig.  38,  which  is  built  square,  and  may 
either  be  gabled  or  have  a  top  sloping  from  front  to  back.     In- 


FiG.  37. — Sussex  Coop. 


Fig.  38. — Square  Coop. 

stead,  however,  of  the  shutter,  which  is  undesirable,  a  preferable 
arrangement  is  to  have  fine  wire  netting  aj)on  a  frame  closely 
fitting  the  front,  as  marauders  can  thus  be  kept  out.  When  a 
wire  run  is  used,  that  will  effect  the  same  object.  In  fact,  a  run 
should  general^  be  used  for  the  first  few  days,  except  when  the 
hen  is  allowed  out;  otherwise  the  chicks  are  liable  to  stray  and 
not  be  able  to  find  the  way  back. 

17 


258  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Fresh  Ground. — A  most  important  point  in  the  management 
of  naturally  reared  chickens  is  that  the  coops  shall  be  moved  on 
to  fresh  soil  daily.  Nothing  will  more  speedily  taint  a  piece  of 
ground  than  a  brood  of  chicks,  and  to  maintain  them  in  health 
it  is  desirable  that  they  be  given  sweet,  fresh  earth  to  run  over. 
Fortunate^,  during  the  growing  months  earth  quickly  sweetens 
again.  ^Vhere  a  large  number  of  coops  arc  emplojed,  these 
should  be  arranged  in  rows  widely  apart,  so  that  in  moving  the 
same  space  shall  not  be  occupied  for  at  least  a  week  or  ten  days. 
Where  chickens  are  reared  on  a  very  restricted  area,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  move  the  coops  sufficiently,  fresh  soil  should  be 
brought  and  placed  under  and  within  these.  Grass  sods  may 
also  be  used  in  the  same  manner.  Such  removal  and  absolute 
cleanliness  are  the  chief  factors  making  for  success  in  rearing. 

Brooders. — ^\Vhen  first  introduced,  biooders  were  of  the  indi- 
vidual type;  that  is,  whilst  accommodating  a  larger  number  in 
one  batch  than  could  be  cared  for  by  a  single  hen,  the  flock  was 
a  vinit,  and  handled  as  such.  Practically  speaking,  each  lot 
formed  a  colony  or  household,  separately  controlled,  in  which 
artificial  warmth  was  substituted  for  the  natural.  The  brooder 
was  moved  on  to  fresh  ground  in  the  same  manner  as  are  coops. 
That  system  was  in  conformity  with  smaller  operations,  and  it 
may  freel}'  be  acknowledged  that,  provided  the  apparatus  is  good 
ancl  the  management  efficient,  in  actual  results  it  is  still  the  most 
satisfactory.  With,  however,  breeding  on  a  much  larger  scale, 
and  especially  as  artificial  methods  of  hatching  enable  greater 
numbers  of  chickens  to  be  brought  out  at  one  and  the  same  time, 
the  c^uestion  of  labom'  became  a  verj^  serious  one.  To  brood  a 
thousand  chickens  would  thus  mean  a  score  of  separate  brooders, 
not  alone  invohang  a  hea\^^  capital  expenditure,  but  the  regula- 
tion of  twenty  lamps,  the  jfeeding  of  twenty  groups  of  chickens, 
and  the  cleaning  of  twenty  of  these  apparatus,  the  combination 
of  which  appears  to  be  an  unnecessarj^  expenditure  of  effort  and 
of  time.  Only  those  who  have  undertaken  such  a  task  can 
realize  what  is  involved,  and  in  unfavourable  weather  the  risks 
are  considerable. 

As  a  consequence,  with  the  growth  of  poultry  husbandry  in 
respect  to  extent  of  operations,  the  desire  to  concentrate  the 
chickens  in  greater  numbers  and  to  adoj)t  a  central  method  of 
heating  became  generally  manifest.  In  this  direction  much  has 
been  learnt  and  unlearnt.  Many  of  the  methods  adopted  failed. 
They  ignored  the  fact  that  chickens  are  living  entities,  ancl  are 
not  amenable  to  what  may  be  termed  a  factory  system.  It 
is  unnecessary,  however,  to  describe  such  methods,  as  they  have 


REARING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL  259 

passed  into  oblivion.  Costly  though  the  experience  has  been,  the 
value  is  considerable,  for  we  know  more  fully  what  to  avoid.  It 
nia}'^  be  freely  and  frankly  acknowledged  that  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  chicks  massed  together  enhances  considerably  the 
risks  involved,  as  these  birds  are  more  liable  to  diseases  of 
various  forms,  whilst  the  mortality  is  usually  much  larger. 
That  is  not  peculiar  to  jDoultry,  but  is  experienced  in  every  branch 
of  animal  life. 

Systems  of  Brooding. — At  the  present  time  the  methods 
adopted  resolve  themselves  into  three  classes — namely,  first, 
individual  brooders,  each  distinct  and  operated  separately; 
second,  colony  houses,  fitted  with  a  portable  brooder  which  can 
be  removed  when  heat  is  no  longer  required;  and,  third,  range 
brooder  houses.  As  shown  below,  the  last-named  vary  con- 
siderably, especially  in  the  method  of  heating.  Up  to  the 
present  time,  even  for  the  rearing  of  table  chickens  to  be  killed 
at  an  early  age,  the  third  method  has  been  least  successful,  and 
in  some  cases  the  mortality  disastrous  in  the  extreme.  Here, 
again,  the  choice  lies  between  distributive  and  ultra-intensive 
methods,  and  the  latter  has  come  off  second-best  to  a  considerable 
degree.  In  Chapter  XVII.  a  system  is  described  of  rearing 
chickens  on  shelves  or  in  flats,  and  under  Individual  Brooders 
reference  is  made  to  the  heatless  method  of  rearing. 

Individual  Brooders. — ^The  first  brooder  I  used  was  in  1877,  a 
very  primitive  affair  which  need  not  be  described.  Keeping  the 
lamp  burning  at  the  right  power  was  no  joke,  especially  in  bad 
weather,  of  which  there  appeared  to  be  an  abundance  that  season. 
In  spite  of  many  difficulties  the  final  results  were  remarkably 
successful.  Out  of  about  eighty  chickens  all  save  two  were  rearecl. 
The  apparatus  was  placed  under  a  rough  shed,  and  the  birds  could 
not  leave  the  brooder  without  full  exposure  to  air  and  wind  and 
rain.  Encouraged  by  this  success,  the  following  year  I  built  a 
shed  in  which  to  place  the  rearer,  giving  the  birds  plenty  of  sj  are 
under  cover,  but  so  arranged  that  they  could  go  oidy  outside  wl'.en 
I  thought  fit.  What  appeared  to  be  more  favourable  conditions 
proved  less  successful.  The  lyro  rata  mortality  was  greatly 
increased.  That  lesson  has  never  been  forgotten.  It  may  be 
equally  applied  to  present  conchtions,  probably  explaining  much 
loss  that  arises,  although  there  doubtless  were  other  contributory 
causes,  such  as  increase  of  numbers  beyond  the  capacity  of  the 
machine. 

For  the  small  poultry-keeper  who  buys  a  batch  of  day-old 
chicks,  and  has  not  a  hen  available  to  take  charge  of  them,  a 


2G0 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


simple  and  inexpensive  brooder  may  be  used,  of  which  several 
similar  forms  are  sold.  It  must,  however,  be  under  a  cover  or  be 
placed  in  a  coop,  as  it  is  not  made  for  outdoor  work.  Brooders 
of  this  type  can  be  made  out  of  tubs,  and  a  paraffin  barrel  cut  in 


Fig.  39.— Hearson's  Foster-Mother. 

two  would  make  a  couple  when  fitted  with  loose  floors,  lamp, 
casement,   and   chimneys.     Plenty   of   ventilation  holes   are   a 
necessity.     One  great  advantage  is  that  the  flocks  are  small. 
A  type  which  is  largely  employed  for  outdoor  work  is  shoAvn  in 


Fig.  40.^Miller  Brooder. 


Fig.  39.  Of  this  there  are  many  representatives,  as  nearly 
every  appliance  maker  lists  one  built  on  this  principle.  These 
brooders  practically  combine  house  and  brooder  in  one,  and  are 
fitted  with  handles  for  lifting  or  with  wheels,  so  that  they  can  be 
easily  removed.     Some  have  hinged  tops  or  covers,  whilst  others 


REARING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL 


261 


have  a  sliding  lid,  the  latter  of  which  is  a  distinct  improvement. 
Usually  they  are  in  two  compartments :  first,  the  brooder  proper, 
and,  second,  the  covered  run.  In  the  "  Hearson  "  the  former  is 
fitted  with  a  small  radiating  tank  or  boiler,  heated  by  a  lamp 
placed  in  the  covered  run,  so  that  no  fumes  can  enter  the  sleeping 
compartment;  in  others  the  lamp  is  placed  therein,  surrounded  by 
a  wire  guard  to  keep  the  birds  from  it.  There  have  been  intro- 
duced apparatus  with  three  compartments:  (1)  The  brooder, 
(2)  the  inner  compartment  with  wooden  floor,  and  (3)  covered  run 
without  floor.  In  practice,  however,  these  triple-compartment 
brooders  have  not  proved  of  any  advantage.  Where  what  is 
known  as  the  dry  method  of  feeding  is  adopted,  the  preferable 
plan  is  to  have  only  two  sections  and  add  a  floor  to  the  run. 

Another  type  of  outdoor  brooder  is  shown  in  Fig.  41,  which 
differs  essentially  from  English  forms,  and  has  been  designed  to 
meet  scratching  require- 
ments on  the  part  of 
chickens.  It  has  two 
compartments.  That  at 
the  back,  as  seen  in 
the  illustration,  is  the 
brooder  proper.  In  this 
is  a  "  hover  " — ^namely, 
a  ■  circular  board,  with 
flannel  fastened  to  the 
edges,  radiating  the  heat, 
obtained  from  a  lamp 
placed  below,  upon  the 
chicks.  The  inmates  arc 
not  restricted,  and  can 

pass  in  and  out  as  they  think  fit.  Frequently,  when  older,  tlicy 
prefer  to  sleep  outside  the  "hover."  A  slope  leads  down  to 
the  non-heated  compartment,  in  which  grain  and  seeds  are  fed 
in  litter.  A  netted  run  is  often  fixed  in  front,  access  to  which 
IS  obtained  by  means  of  a  small  door.  .Save  that  the  lamp  is 
somewhat  awkwardly  placed,  I  have  found  this  form  of  brooder 
excellent  in  the  results  obtained. 

Within  recent  years  fireless  brooders — that  is,  without  arti- 
ficial heat — have  been  introduced,  and  with  some  measure  of 
success,  though  not  as  great  as  expected.  In  these,  by  conserva- 
tion of  natural  body  heat  of  the  chicks,  it  has  been  found  that 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  j^ear  chickens  can  be  reared  success- 
fully; and  whilst  they  may  not  grow  as  rapidly  as  in  heated 
brooders,  they  are  more  \igorous  and  feather  much  better.     This 


Fig.  41.— Outdoor  Cyphers  Brooder. 


:i02  ruULTRY  HUSBA^'DHY 

leads  to  consideration  of  the  question  whether  a  hen  gives  warmth 
to  the  brood  or  simply  prevents  elimination  by  covering  and 
sheltering  them.  In  our  climate,  however,  jiractical  experience 
has  shomi  that  in  winter  and  wet  weather  the  insides  of  these 
fireless  brooders  become  damp,  and  chills  result,  which,  however, 
may  be  due  to  condensation  of  moisture  as  a  result  of  insufficient 
ventilation.  The  problem  here  indicated  has  yet  to  be  solved. 
It  would  be  a  great  gain  if  heat  could  be  dispensed  with,  both  as 
to  cost  of  apparatus  and  labour.  We  have  not,  however,  arrived 
as  yet  at  that  stage.  I  cannot,  therefore,  do  more  than  mention 
this  class  of  brooder. 

Where  many  machines  fail  is  that  they  are  dark  and  insuffici- 
ently ventilated.     Conservation  of  heat  and  reduction  of  cost  in 


Fig.  42. — Fireless  Brooder. 

operation  are  dearly  purchased  if  we  deny  to  the  birds  the 
elements  and  conditions  essential  to  growth  and  development. 

Colony  Brooders. — The  first  colony  brooder  that  I  saw  was  in 
France,  man}-  years  ago.  An  ordinary  portable  house  was  fitted 
with  a  brooder  which  could  be  removed  when  the  chickens  no 
longer  required  heat.  In  large  measure  this  arrangement  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  French  breeders  regard  it  as  desirable 
for  chickens  to  remain  in  the  environment  with  which  thej' 
are  familiar.  What  they  suggest  is,  move  the  house  and  the 
chickens  together  to  fresh  ground,  but  not  the  chickens  from  the 
house.  For  that  something  is  to  be  said,  although  it  would  jiro- 
foundly  modify  our  present  methods,  by  ^\'hich  we  appeal-  tc 
assume  that  fowls  have  no  feelings  whatever. 

At  Cornell  University,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  Professor 
J.  E.  Rice  has  introduced  successf  uDy  houses  of  a  similar  class,  in 


REARING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL 


263 


which  were  placed  brooders  heated  by  gasolene,  capable  of  removal 
as  the  birds  arrived  at  an  age  when  heat  no  was  longca-  required. 
These  were  placed  in  runs  where  the  birds  remained  all  the  time. 
There  is  no  reason,  however,  why  such  a  system  should  not  form 
an  integral  part  of  an  extensive  method  of  rearing,  in  connection 


13.— Canadi-vx  Brooder  Hi'Tse. 


with  which  the  advantages  of  distribution  and  free  range  woidd 
be  secured.  In  fact,  my  own  view  is  that  future  developments 
will  be  more  on  these  lines  than  has  been  the  case  heretofore. 
The  doing  so  would  minimize  cost  of  equipment ;  and  although 
labour  of  attention  to  the  brooders  would  be  greater  than  under 


264  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

concentrated  conditions,  the  lessened  requirements  of  the  birds 
after  the  first  few  daj^s  woidd  more  than  compensate ;  and  dangers 
arismg  from  massing  larger  numbers  together,  and  of  earth  con- 
tamination, would  be  avoided — that  is,  where  the  land  available 
is  sufficient  for  the  purpose.  For  this  work  single  individual 
brooders — i.e.,  withovit  runs — could  be  used.  In  Fig.  43  is 
represented  an  apex  Canadian  brooder  house,  in  which  the 
brooder  is  placed,  though  the  form  of  the  main  building,  so 
long  as  suitable,  is  not  of  great  importance.  Nothing  could  be 
better  for  this  purpose  than  an  ordinary  open-fronted  poultry 
house. 

Brooder  Houses. — It  has  ah-eady  been  indicated  that,  as  opera- 
tions in  respect  to  poultry  husbanch'y  have  increased  in  extent, 
the  tendency  is  to  mass  the  birds  in  greater  numbers.  That  is 
seen  in  the  case  of  adult  lajnng  stock,  as  previously  referred  to. 
It  is  equally  so  with  chickens  and  ducklings.  Probablj'  within 
recent  times  the  one  has  led  to  the  other.  It  is  an  attempt  to 
apply  the  factory  sj^stem.  Some  of  the  plans  laid  dowTi  have  been 
complete  in  the  extreme.  Several  years  ago  particulars  were 
published  of  a  horseshoe  house  for  chickens,  embracing,  if  I 
remember  rightly,  twenty-five  to  thirty  compartments.  The  plan 
was  to  hatch,  say,  a  couple  of  hundi'cd  birds  every  third  day, 
moving  onwards  regularl}^  from  one  section  to  another,  so  that 
when  the  last  was  reached  these  would  be  of  an  age  and  in  fit 
condition  for  killing.  Many  other  trials  have  been  made  on  a  less 
pretentious  scale.  The  only  trouble  was  that  these  schemes  do 
not  work  out  in  practice.  Perfect  on  paper,  thej'  were  imperfect 
in  execution.  In  these  and  a  multitude  of  other  cases  the  mistake 
made  is  in  attempting  too  much,  and  in  disregarding  natural 
factors  which  are  powerful  in  the  extreme. 

I  do  not  suggest  that  a  brooder  house  may  not  be  of  the 
greatest  service,  and,  in  fact,  should  always  reconmiend  one  of  a 
moderate  size,  more  especially  for  early  batches  of  chickens  or 
ducklings,  or  even  such  birds  as  are  intended  for  killing.  In  these 
directions  the  advantages  are  obvious.  That,  however,  is  a 
different  proposition  to  use  of  long-range  brooder  houses  entirely. 
I  am  inclined  to  the  view  that  the  short  history  of  some  of  the 
more  pretentious  poultry  plants  was  due,  iii  part,  to  false  systems 
of  rearing,  leading  to  degeneracj^  of  the  stock,  combined  wdth  soil 
taint  in  the  runs,  which  could  not  be  avoided  as  a  result  of  im- 
movability. In  fact,  the  last-named  point  indicates  an  insuper- 
able barrier  to  success  in  these  big  brooder  houses,  where,  to  meet 
capital  and  other  charges,  the  numbers  maintained  must  annually 
be  very  large.     I  have  seen  structm-es  of  this  class  250  feet  long. 


REARING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL 


265 


skilfulty  designed,  and  the  system  carefully  carried  out,  but  they 
did  not  pay.     That  is  the  final  test. 

Nor  is  the  question  determined  by  methods  of  heating.  After 
trials  have  been  made  by  circulating  water  and  hot-air  pipes  of 
various  kinds,  it  would  appear  that  those  who  have  tested  these 
methods  most  fully  have  reluctantly  been  compelled  to  revert  to 
individual  brooders,  even  when  these  are  placed  in  long  brooder 
houses,  so  that  each  flock  may  be  treated  as  a  unit  and  not  as 
part  of  a  great  mass.  That  being  the  case,  the  virtue  of  large 
houses  has  disappeared.  My  own  suggestion  is  that,  where  this 
system  is  preferred,  the  plan  to  follow  is  to  have  ten  30-f eet  houses 
rather  than  one  of  300  feet.  If  wisely  distributed  the  risks 
of  earth  or  soil  taint  can  at  least  be  minimized,  which  is  an 
important   factor.     This    may   appear   a   compromise,    but   all 


Fig.  44. — Cyphers  Four-Section  Brooder. 

successful    businesses   are  that,  and  poultr^^  husbandry  is  not 
exempt  from  the  same  influence. 

For  houses  what  are  known  as  sectional  brooders  (Fig.  44)  may 
be  employed,  as  in  these  only  one  heater  is  required.  These  are 
made  in  varying  lengths,  and,  as  they  are  separately  fitted,  they 
can  be  used  in  any  suitable  building.  Each  section  as  shown  is 
3  feet  long,  18  inches  wide,  and  11  inches  high.  They  are  fitted 
with  pipes  heated  by  a  lamp  at  one  end .  Except  for  experimental 
work,  in  which  ecpiality  of  conditions  is  important,  I  regard  the 
individual  brooders  as  preferable. 

Methods  o£  Heating. — In  the  long-range  brooder  houses  to 
which  references  have  been  made,  where  water  or  hot-air  pipes 
are  used,  a  furnace  is  employed,  thus  simplifying  the  work. 
Under  such  conditions  fire  risks  are  reduced,  but  flexibility  is 
wanting.     On  the  establishment  of  Herr  P.  Sweers  at  Huls,  near 


2CG  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Crefeld,  Germanj^  the  heat  is  supplied  by  means  of  a  boiler 
l^laced  in  a  well  at  one  end  of  the  brooder  house.  Pipes  pass  under 
the  floors  of  the  brooders,  which  are  insulated,  so  that  they  are 
cool.  Air  enters  from  below,  and,  passing  over  the  pipes,  is 
warmed,  ascending  through  a  metal  cone,  working  in  a  thread 
screw,  by  means  of  which  the  supply  of  heated  air  can  be  more 
or  less  regulated.  Above  is  a  revolving  hover  working  on  the 
same  screw,  and  the  height  can  be  graduated  in  accord- 
ance with  the  size  and  age  of  the  inmates.  For  individual 
brooder  lamps,  whether  i;sed  outside  or  indoors,  petroleum  is 
generally  used.  And  in  colony  brooders  gasolene  is  often  pre- 
ferred, for  which  a  special  burner  must  be  employed,  as  it  is  very 
inflammable. 

General  Hints. — ^The  main  points  to  be  observed  in  the  artificial 
rearing  of  chickens  are — 

First,  that  there  shall  be  no  overcrowding.  Also  every  bird 
must  have  sufficient  sjoace.  Greater  success  is  achieved  with 
smaller  flocks,  say  thirty  to  fifty,  than  with  very  large  ones. 

Second,  that  fumes  from  the  lamp  must  not  enter  the  brooding 
compartment.     It  is  here  where  many  cheaper  machines  fail. 

Third,  that  whilst  for  the  first  few  days  warmth  must  be  well 
maintained,  say  90  degrees  or  even  a  little  higher,  it  should  be 
gradually  reduced  until  at  four  to  five  weeks  it  need  not  exceed 
65  to  70  degrees.  In  mild  weather  the  temperature  should  be 
further  reduced  during  the  day. 

Fourth,  regular  attention  to  lamps  and  flues  is  essential,  and 
absolute  cleanliness  is  of  supreme  importance. 

Fifth,  for  chickens  in  outside  brooders  as  much  sunshine  as 
possible  in  winter  and  as  little  in  summer  is  desirable.  We  need 
to  strike  the  happy  mean  in  temperature. 

The  Early  Days. — For  the  first  twenty -four  to  thu-ty-six  hours 
after  a  chicken  is  hatched  it  needs  no  other  food  than  is  provided 
by  Nature.  The  yolk  l)ag,  which  is  absorbed  into  the  abdomen 
IH-ior  to  the  breaking  of  the  shell,  contains  all  the  food  needed  for 
the  time  already  stated,  or  even  longer.  Harm  is  often  done  by 
forcing  young  chickens  to  eat,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  de- 
rangements of  the  stomach  are  set  up  in  this  way,  especially  as 
rich  food  is  often  given.  When  the  projjer  time  comes,  there  will 
be  no  need  to  force  eating.  The  cravings  of  Nature  will  remove 
all  necessity  for  that.  But  the  hen  ought  to  be  fed  well,  and  when 
the  anxiety  of  her  maternal  trial  is  over  she  will  be  ready  for  and 
need  something  calculated  to  brace  her  up  again.  The  late 
M.   Van    der    Snickt,  of    Brussels,   declared    the   chickens   at 


REARING.  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL  267 

liberty  can  go  four  days  before  any  food  is  supplied,  and  will  be 
much  more  vigorous  than  if  fed  earlier.  I  have  proved  that 
statement  up  to  seventy-two  hours. 

Feeding  Chickens. — ^The  whole  question  of  feeding  young 
chickens  deserves  the  fullest  attention,  as  upon  it  will  largely 
depend  the  future  of  the  birds.  As  already  stated,  there  has  been 
a  revolt  against  pampering,  but  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  going  to 
the  other  extreme;  one  would  be  just  as  unsatisfactory  as  the 
other.  The  plan  which  I  adopted  for  many  years  has  been  to  feed, 
after  the  first  twenty-four  hours,  for  three  or  four  days  upon  hard- 
boiled  eggs  and  breadcrumbs,  slightly  moistened  with  milk ;  but  I 
am  bound  to  confess  chickens  are  reared  without  the  egg  quite 
as  successfully  as  with  it.  After  the  third  day  of  egg-feeding  it 
was  customary  to  give  alternately  for  the  next  fortnight  Spratt's 
chicken  meal,  oatmeal,  ground  oats,  and  boiled  rice,  all  properly 
prepared  by  steeping  or  cooking.  From  the  period  named  the 
boiled  rice  was  given  very  seldom,  and  broken  wheat  or  buck- 
wheat, or  in  some  cases  crushed  oats,  were  added  to  the  diet.  My 
experience  has  been  that  this  system,  properly  caried  out,  yielded 
in  the  great  majority  of  places  the  maximum  of  results  when 
rearing  took  place  under  hens;  but  it  was  not  found  nearly  so 
satisfactory  when  brooders  were  employed. 

A  few  years  ago  all  appearances  were  that  artificial  rearing  on 
a  large  scale  was  an  absolute  failure,  due  to  the  heavy  mortalit3^ 
That  was  equally  true  in  Europe  and  America.  In  our  own  case 
deaths  reached  in  one  year  40  per  cent.,  and  in  others  the  average 
was  much  greater.  After  observations  and  experiments  extend- 
ing over  three  seasons,  when  everything  possible  was  done  in  the 
way  of  prevention,  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  due  to 
weakening  of  the  system  by  denial  of  the  opportunity  for  exercise. 
The  sj'stem  described  below  tells  how  this  was  overcome. 

It  is  natural  for  the  organs  of  the  body  to  be  used  as  much  as 
possible,  and  experience  has  shown  that  hens  which  have  to  work 
in  this  way  for  their  living  lay  better  and  are  healthier  than  if  they 
are  fed  withoiit  giving  them  anything  to  do,  as  is  often  the  case 
with  birds  in  confinement.  The  latter  system  may  be  desirable 
when  the  birds  arc  to  be  killed  off,  but  not  when  they  are  to  be 
kept  as  laying  machines.  It  was  this  fact  which  led  to  the  adop- 
tion of  the  scratching  system  in  connection  with  the  rearing  of 
chickens.  The  chief  trouble  which  we  had  in  rearing  was  seen 
in  an  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  leading  to  diarrhoea  or  dysen- 
tery, and  in  some  cases  the  lungs  also  were  affected.  I  need  not 
descrilje  the  affection  further,  because  most  of  those  who  have 
attempted  to  rear  chickens  in  the  winter  season  have  had  similar 


268  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

experience.  It  would  appear  that  this  trouble  was  due  either  to 
dampness  or  to  want  of  exercise,  because  the  same  food  was 
employed  as  at  other  periods  of  the  year  and  under  other  con- 
ditions when  it  was  most  successful.  The  lack  of  exercise,  how- 
ever, seemed  to  make  the  birds  more  subject  to  chill,  and  thus  the 
dampness  would  affect  them  to  a  greater  extent.  The  plan 
adopted  was  as  follows:  The  large  brooder  house  had  the  floor 
littered  to  a  depth  of  several  inches  with  cut  chaff ;  in  the  open-air 
brooders  were  fitted  floors  to  the  covered  runs  in  makes  that 
were  suitable.  So  far  as  feeding  was  concerned,  the  main  idea 
was  that  the  birds  should  have  to  work  for  their  living,  and  the 
food  be  to  a  large  extent  seeds  and  small  grain.  All  the  time  grit 
in  abundance  was  thrown  amongst  the  chaff,  and  it  is  surprising 
the  quantity  of  that  material  the  birds  will  consume.  Of  course 
grit  is  an  absolute  essential,  otherwise  the  chickens  would  be 
unable  to  digest  the  seeds  and  grain.  In  addition  there  was 
supplied  plenty  of  water,  which  should  be  given  fresh  two  or 
three  times  a  day,  and  an  abundance  of  green  food — lettuces 
or  young  cabbages.  In  fact,  success  hinged  largely  upon  the 
green  food  suj^plied.  The  birds  consume  a  very  much  larger 
quantity  of  water  than  would  be  the  case  if  they  had  principally 
soft  food. 

The  point  to  consider  is  that  the  chickens,  after  their  morning 
feed,  cannot  possibly  secure  an}'  of  the  seeds  without  working  for 
them.  These  all  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  chaff,  and  the  chickens 
scratch  to  find  the  seeds;  in  finding  one  they  cover  up  the  rest, 
and  so  on  all  day.  It  is  no  question  of  being  fed  so  many  times  a 
day,  because  they  are  alwaj^s  eating  and  always  working.  The 
percentage  of  loss  after  the  system  was  introduced  was  in- 
finitesimal. The  system  here  recommended  is  not  in  any  sense 
cheaper  than  the  old  method,  and  unless  care  is  taken  it  may  be 
considerably  dearer;  but  it  is  rather  a  question  of  growing  a  fair 
percentage  to  a  killing  age.  Judgment  has  to  be  exercised  in 
supplying  sufficient  food  without  giving  too  much.  The  chaff 
needs  to  be  renewed  about  every  ten  or  fourteen  days,  oftener  if 
the  number  of  chickens  is  considerable.  When  taken  away,  it  is 
a  very  excellent  plan  to  throw  the  chaff  into  the  scratching  sheds 
for  adult  fowls,  and  they  will  generallj^  find  something  that  is 
worth  working  for.  Dry  feeding  alone  is  not  desirable.  The 
best  results  have  followed  when  a  proportion  of  soft  food,  as 
shown  below,  is  given  after  the  second  week,  otherwise  the  chicks 
make  slower  progress. 

The  following  is  the  dietary  which  has  proved  most  successful 
under  this  system: 


REARING,  NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL 


269 


First  fortnight :  IVIillet,  dari,  buckwheat,  canary-seed,  in  equal 
parts,  and  granulated  meat. 

Second  fortnight :  Spratt's  meal,  cooked  rice  or  oatmeal,  diied 
off  with  ground  oats,  adding  a  little  bone-meal  and  15  per  cent,  of 
meat  as  morning  feed ;  grains  as  above,  with  broken  wheat  added 
at  other  periods  of  the  day.    Gradually  reduce  the  canarj'-seed. 

When  a  month  old :  Abolish  small  seeds  and  add  cracked  maize. 

When  six  weeks  old :  Barley-meal,  toppings  and  meat,  mixed 
and  given  warm  in  the  morning;  whole  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and 
cracked  maize;  green  food  all  the  time. 

A  word  of  warning  is  necessary  where  it  is  intended  to  fatten 


Fig.  4,5.— An  Excellent  Type  of  "  Halfway  "  House. 


the  chickens.  Under  these  circumstances  thej^  should  be  fed  to 
a  greater  extent  upon  soft  food  after  they  are  a  month  old,  other- 
wise the  crop  will  not  be  expanded  enough  to  enable  them  to  bear 
the  cramming  during  the  final  stages — that  is,  to  hold  sufficient 
food  for  the  best  results. 

The  Orphans. — ^As  a  rule  3'oung  birds  when  about  six  to  eight 
weeks  old,  whether  raised  naturally  or  artificially,  are  left  to  their 
own  resources.  Provision  must  thus  be  made  for  the  orphans. 
What  this  provision  will  be  depends  upon  the  season  of  the  year, 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  nature  of  the  chickens.  If  the 
weather  is  warm,  and  they  are  of  a  hardy  race,  they  may  be  put 


270  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

at  once  into  a  portable  house  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  45. 
In  this  ease  it  will  be  desirable  to  provide  special  perches, 
but  bent  breast-cones  would  result  if  they  were  allowed  to  roost 
on  ordinary  narrow  perches.  These  special  perches  should  not 
be  less  than  6  inches  broad,'  and  have  the  edges  carefully  rounded 
off.  At  one  time  we  used  broad  shelves,  but  the  6-inch  perches 
are  in  every  way  as  good.  Some  breeders  do  not  permit  their 
chickens  to  roost  on  perches  until  thc}^  are  well  grown,  but  make 
a  thick  bed  of  sand  or  straw  on  the  floor.  In  unfavourable  weather 
it  is  often  desirable,  especially  with  chickens  that  are  artificially 
reared,  to  transfer  them  to  what  is  known  as  a  cold  brooder. 
If  to  be  used  under  cover,  it  is  enough  to  l)uild  a  roomy  frame 
upon  which  canvas  is  tightly  stretched,  forming  a  cage  or  inner 
compartment,  or  to  use  a  large  well-ventilated  box.  The  object 
is  simply  to  afford  protection  against  cold  at  night. 

Division  oJ  the  Sexes. — ^A  wise  plan  is  to  separate  the  sexes  in 
chickens  as  soon  as  these  can  be  distinguished.  Breeds  differ  in 
attainment  of  maturity,  so  that  no  fixed  time  can  be  stated. 
Usually  the  combs  of  the  young  cockerels  are  the  first  indications 
of  sexual  development,  and  as  soon  as  these  are  evident  the  time 
has  arrived  when  separation  should  take  place.  In  the  lighter 
and  quicker-growing  breeds  that  will  be  from  six  to  eight  weeks 
after  hatching,  and  in  the  heavier  races  two  to  three  weeks  later. 

Hardening  the  Chickens. — Except  for  such  birds  as  are  to  be 
killed  at  an  early  age,  with  which  there  should  be  con.stant  and 
even  rapid  growth,  it  is  necessary  to  build  up  a  strong  constitu- 
tion, to  secure  which  object  a  measure  of  hardening  is  desirable. 
Wherever  possible,  the  wiser  course  is  to  put  the  birds  out  on 
range,  where  their  foraging  instinct  can  have  full  play,  in  the 
which  they  will  obtain  the  exercise  which  leads  to  bone  and 
muscle  development.  That  can  usually  be  clone  with  safety  at 
from  ten  to  twelve  weeks,  according  to  the  breed.  During  this 
period  the  food  should  be  entirely  grain,  which  may  be  placed  in 
hoppers  to  insure  a  sufficient  suppl}'.  Where  the  environment 
compels  restriction  they  should  be  in  large  runs,  in  which  is  a 
roomy  scratching  shed,  and  the  food  supplied  in  litter. 


CHAPTER   XVn 

PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY 

Under  ordinary  conditions  specialization  either  for  the  pro- 
duction of  eggs  or  flesh  was  practically  non-existent.  The  former 
were  eaten  or  sold  Avhen  forthcoming,  and  the  surplus  chickens  or 
older  birds  were  killed  when  ready.  Such  could  only  continue  so 
long  as  the  state  of  affairs  was  primitive,  and  the  volume  of 
supply  as  great  or  greater  than  the  demand.  For  several 
centuries  in  some  countries  and  areas  a  measure  of  specialization 
has  been  adopted.  Nature  herself  works  in  that  direction, 
evolving,  as  a  result  of  climate  and  soil,  races  which  are  better 
for  one  quality  than  another,  in  which  case  the  development  of 
either  fecundity  or  meat  properties  respectively  is  at  the  expense 
of  the  other  In  this  way,  plus  selective  influences,  we  find 
breeds  in  some  districts  are  known  for  a  special  quality.  Thus 
the  south-eastern  counties  of  England  and  the  south-eastern 
districts  of  Ireland  have  become  famo\is  for  their  chickens,  the 
south  Mildands  of  England  for  ducks,  and  East  Anglia  for 
turkeys.  The  same  is  true  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  where  in 
France  several  districts,  notably  the  Bresse  country  and  parts  of 
Normandy,  have  produced  the  highest  grade  of  chickens,  and  in 
Belgium  and  South  Germany  areas  are  found  in  which  meat 
properties  have  received  special  attention.  The  primary  point, 
therefore,  is  that  conditions  shall  be  favourable.  Eggs  may  be 
produced  almost  anywhere,  but  not  table  poultry.  In  what  may 
be  termed  the  egg  districts  svirplus  birds  will  always  be  found, 
and  the  greater  the  production  the  larger  the  number  of  these. 
Information  is  given  in  Chapter  VI.  as  to  the  influence  of  soil, 
which  is  of  very  great  importance  in  meat  production.  S\iitability 
in  that  direction,  and  also  a  plentiful  supply  of  milk  for  the  fatten- 
ing process,  are  the  essential  factors. 

The  Fattening  Industry. — In  the  following  paragraphs  is  given 
information  as  to  the  methods  adopted,  mainty  based  on  English 
271 


272  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

practice,  to  which  is  added  experience  in  other  lands.  That  there 
has  been  great  growth  in  this  branch  of  poidtrj'  husbandly  is 
evident,  and  the  future  will  \uidoubtedly  see  deveIoi))nents  on  a 
wider  scale.  Even  in  America  and  Russia  and  Hungary,  where 
at  one  time  the  system  was  -unknown,  has  it  been  realized  that  the 
fattening  process  is  economic,  and  that  to  kill  a  bird  in  lean  con- 
dition is  wasteful  in  the  extreme.  We  are  simply  applying  to 
poultrj^  the  prmciples  which  are  adopted  in  connection  with 
larger  stock — namely,  that  an  animal  or  bird  should  be  fed  off 
prior  to  killing,  and  that  by  such  method  the  edible  portions  of  the 
body  can  be  greatly  hicreased.  With  respect  to  chickens  and 
fowls,  in  three  weeks  from  1  to  3  pounds  can  be  added  to  the 
weight,  mainlj^  of  the  flesh,  in  accordance  with  the  size  and 
capacity  for  development,  at  a  cost  of  about  eightpence.  Im- 
provement in  softness  and  quality  of  the  meat  and  of  general 
appearance  are  also  considerable .  As  examples ,  when  this  system 
was  adopted  in  America  and  Russia,  the  position  and  value  of 
birds  from  those  countries  was  enormously  enhanced  on  English 
and  other  markets. 

In  France  many  farmers'  wives  are  skilful  fatters,  and  thus 
finish  off  the  birds  reared  by  themselves.  Some  of  the  finest 
specimens  I  have  ever  seen  were  the  result  of  such  methods. 
Elsewhere  the  work  of  rearing  and  of  fattening  is  generally  dis- 
sociated. Such  is  true  in  all  countries  with  which  I  am  familiar. 
Collectors  scoiu'  the  district  around  for  bnds  to  fill  the  cages, 
buying  from  farmers  and  cottagers  who  rear  them.  Carts  loaded 
with  pens  of  fowls  form  a  common  sight  in  Sussex  and  West  Kent, 
to  be  met  with  on  every  road  and  lane.  Sometimes  a  man  may 
be  met  with  a  cage  upon  his  back,  used  for  byroads,  and  he 
meets  the  cart  at  a  determined  point.  These  back-cages  are 
made  curved,  and  hold  a  couple  of  dozen  birds,  built  in  two  tiers. 
When  filled  they  are  no  light  load.  The  higglers  know  just 
where  to  go,  and  when  a  supply  of  chickens  will  be  ready  for 
them.  In  Belgium  the  plan  is  for  the  rearers  to  bring  their  lean 
birds  to  fixed  markets,  where  they  are  met  by  fatteners  who 
purchase  in  that  way. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  combine  the  work  of  breed- 
ing, raising,  and  fattening.  Except  when  operations  are  on  a 
comparatively  smaller  scale,  as  in  France,  these  have  failed.  It 
would  be  a  great  gain  if  this  finishing  process  were  more  widely 
known,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  residential  centres, 
where  a  direct  trade  can  be  secured.  In  those  districts  not  in 
this  favoured  position,  the  produce  of  which  must  pass  through 
trade  channels,  the  marketing  problem  is  supremely  important. 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY  273 

and  the  dual  system  has  great  advantages.  Those  who  raise  the 
birds  obtain  much  better  prices  than  would  be  possible  if  each  had 
to  find  buj'crs,  and  the  fatteners  are  able  to  organize  a  better, 
larger,  and  more  regular  supply.  Moreover,  the  work  of  fattening 
is  highly  specialized,  requiring  considerable  skill  and  experience. 

A  Method  of  Ripening. — Fattening  is  a  method  of  ripening. 
Fat  or  oil  laid  upon  the  various  tissues  throughout  the  body 
softens,  and  has  the  effect  of  making  them  more  tender.  This  is 
the  same  process  found  working  in  all  Nature.  Fruits  fill  out, 
and  are  plumpest  and  sweetest  when  they  are  ripe.  In  both 
cases  the  ripenmg,  if  continued  too  long,  tends  to  decay.  It  is 
just  as  reasonable  to  say  that  grapes  are  not  good  to  eat  at  their 
prime,  because  if  allowed  to  hang  longer  they  go  bad,  as  it  is  to 
say  that  the  fact  a  fowl  goes  back  if  fattened  too  long  is  a 
proof  that  fattening  is  a  wrong  system.  Breeders  and  layers 
should  be  kept  in  lean,  hard  condition.  At  the  same  time  we  can 
realize  the  vahie  of  fattening  for  fowls  destined  to  immediate 
slaughter.  This  immediate  slaughter  is  absolutely  necessary 
when  birds  have  been  fed  up  in  the  way  named,  for  the  fat  upon 
their  tissues  prevents  the  organs  performing  their  functions  pro- 
perly, so  that  diseases  of  various  kinds  are  soon  generated.  The 
great  Liebig  was  accustomed  to  say  that  all  fat  is  a  disease. 
That  had  reference  to  human  beings,  who  are  not  intended  for 
slaughter,  and  his  dictum  must  not  be  regarded  as  applicable  to 
the  preparation  of  table  fowls. 

Fattening. — In  fattening  poultry,  or,  in  fact,  any  other  animals, 
two  things  are  absolutely  necessary.  First,  that  the  food  supplied 
shall  tend  to  the  production  of  flesh;  and,  second,  that  the  con- 
ditions under  which  fowls  are  kept  shall  eliminate  as  little  of 
the  oil  or  heat  fuel  as  possible.  It  may  be  well  here  to  explain 
that,  although  the  term  "fattening"  is  emploj-ed,  merely  laying 
on  an  excessive  quantity  of  fat  or  oil  is  not  meant,  such  as  was 
at  one  time  the  case  with  cattle  and  sheep;  the  addition  of  the 
fat  is  necessary,  in  that,  as  already  explained,  it  softens  and 
ripens  the  flesh.  The  reason  why  the  flesh  of  a  ripened  fowl  is 
finer  in  flavour  and  more  digestible  is  that  fat  takes  the  place  of 
water  in  the  tissues.  ,  This,  when  cooked,  melts  and  softens  the 
flesh,  whereas  water  evaporates  and  leaves  it  dry  and  harder. 
Professor  Warington,  F.R.S.,  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
rates  of  consumption  and  of  increase  vary  considerably  in  different 
parts  of  the  period.  As  a  fattening  animal  increases  in  size  the 
(piantity  of  food  it  consumes  also  somewhat  increases;  the 
stomach  at  the  same  times  becomes  larger.     When  the  animal 

18 


274 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


becomes  very  fat,  the  consumption  of  food  falls  off  again,  and  the 
rate  of  increase  at  this  jDoint  is  much  diminished.  As  fattening 
advances,  the  daily  increase  in  live  weight  becomes  gradually 


produce  a  steadily 


smaller,  and  the  same  amount  of   food  \vj 
diminishing  amount  of  increase. 

*  "  Chemistry  of  the  Farm."    Loudon:  Vinton  and  Co.,  Ltd. 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY  275 

Cages. — ^There  are  many  different  methods  adopted  by  fatters, 
but  one  general  idea  appears  to  prevail.  During  the  milder 
months  of  the  year  many  fowls  are  partly,  and  sometimes  wholly, 
fatted  in  outside  cages,  placed  under  the  lee  of  some  hedgerow, 
or  where  they  can  be  protected  from  wind  and  rain.  In  the 
Uckfield  district  of  Sussex,  and  in  Kent,  a  large  amount  of  fruit  is 
grown,  and  these  orchards  are  utilized  for  the  accommodation  of 
outside  fattening  cages.  Fig.  46  shows  an  example.  These  outside 
pens  or  cages,  as,  in  fact,  those  inside  also,  are  very  simply  made, 
consisting  of  laths  of  wood,  generally  about  1  inch  wide  and 
1|  inches  apart,  except  the  bottoms,  which  have  the  laths 
narrowed  below,  so  as  not  to  catch  the  droppings.  Each  cage 
should  be  7  feet  6  inches  long,  20  inches  from  back  to  front,  and  the 
same  in  height,  divided  by  laths  into  compartments  of  30  inches, 
holding  three  or  four  birds.  To  each  compartment  is  fitted  in  front 
a  sliding  door.  The  cages,  Avhich  are  usually  in  single  tiers,  are 
raised  about  3  feet  above  the  ground,  upon  what  are  called  stages 
— cross-pieces  of  scantling  supported  ))y  posts  fixed  m  the  ground. 

In  not  a  few  instances  everything  is  of  the  simplest  and  cheap- 
est description,  and  the  opportunity  is  taken  of  a  slack  season  to 
put  together  what  further  cages  are  likely  to  be  required  either 
for  renewal  or  extension  of  operations.  They  are  also  made  and 
supplied  at  reasonable  prices.  Shelter  against  wind  and  rain  is 
most  important,  A  thick  hedge  is  very  serviceable  against  wind, 
but  the  tops  of  the  cages  should  be  covered  in  with  a  sloping 
wooden  or  corrugated  iron  cover,  or  branches  of  trees,  which  are 
regarded  as  best  of  all,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  they  are  coolest, 
allowing  for  the  circulation  of  air.  In  front  is  fitted  a  long  wooden 
trough,  made  V-shaped,  and  suspended  by  cord  or  resting  upon 
supports,  in  either  case  easily  removable. 

The  usual  plan  is  to  keep  the  birds  m  these  cages  for  from  a  week 
to  ten  days,  feeding  them  twice  a  day  from  the  trough.  Large 
numbers  of  birds  are  never  crammed,  but  supply  a  demand  for 
half -fatted  chickens,  and  it  is  wise  to  keep  this  trade  in  view. 
The  birds  are  considerably  improved  as  compared  with  the  lean 
specimens,  and  should  command  better  prices.  In  many  dis- 
tricts it  will  be  well  at  first  to  supply  half-fatted  chickens  until 
there  is  an  inquiry  for  those  finished  off  completely;  and  m 
summer  there  is  very  little  demand  for  fully -fatted  specimens. 

The  Sheds. — ^When  the  birds  have  been  fed  a  week  to  ten  days 
from  the  troughs,  if  it  is  intended  to  finish  them  fully,  they  should 
be  removed  to  covered  sheds,  of  which  there  is  a  great  variety. 
Some  are  very  rough  indeed,  and  evidently  built  with  the  one 
idea  of  cheapness,  whilst  others  are  of  a  more  complete  type.      In 


276  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

not  a  few  cases  barns  and  other  biiildings  have  been  adapted  to 
the  purpose  of  fatting  sheds,  and  where  this  is  done  they  are 
loftier  and  warmer  during  severe  weather  than  is  possible  with 
wooden  erections. 

There  are,  however,  some  f atters  in  Sussex  who  do  not  use  sheds 
at  all,  but  fatten  entirely  in  the  open  air,  giving  such  shelter  as 
may  be  obtained  from  hedges  and  a  rough  board  covering.  At  the 
establishment  of  Mr.  J.  Oliver,  near  Heathfield,  long  sheds  are 
employed  with  open  ends.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  it  is 
found  that  the  best  results  are  obtained  if  the  fatting  cages  are 
in  single  tier,  because  they  can  be  more  easily  cleaned.  In 
America,   Hungary,   and   elsewhere,   I   found   that   cages   were 


Fig.  47. — Martin's  Fattening  Shed. 

stacked  in  three  to  five  tiers.  Apart  from  the  question  of  ventila- 
tion, unless  the  most  rigid  cleanliness  is  maintained,  this  system 
soon  causes  disease.  Whatever  the  form  of  pen  employed,  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  the  droppings  daily,  to  limewash  the  house 
out  frequently,  and  to  treat  the  pens  in  the  same  manner  between 
each  occupancy.  An  excellent  plan  when  cages  are  in  smgle  tier 
is  to  have  a  sloping  board  below  the  pens,  sprinkling  upon  it  fine 
earth  and  lime,  and  scraping  it  down  daily.  The  use  of  powdered 
lime,  Izal  or  other  disinfecting  powder,  or  a  solution  of  perman- 
ganate of  potash,  is  advisable,  to  destroy  )nicrobcs.  It  is  im]ios- 
siblo  to  lay  too  nuich  emphasis  upon  cleanliness  in  the  fatting 
sheds  and  cages,  whether  m  the  open  or  under  cover. 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY 


277 


It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  at  length  the  various  sheds  in  use, 
some  of  which  are  shown  in  the  ilhistrations.  These  vary  in  size 
with  opportunities  and  requirements.  The  main  points  are  that 
they  shall  be  well  ventilated  and  not  be  overcrowded,  yet  protect 
the  birds  against  exposure.  Diu-mg  the  process  the  chickens 
require  an  abundant  supply  of  oxygen  to  facilitate  digestion.  It 
is  here  where  many  sheds  I  have  seen  in  other  countries  fail.  In 
fact,  the  great  difference  between  the  English  method  and  those 
adopted  on  the  Continent  and  in  America  is  thus  indicated.  The 
largest  fattening  plant  in  this  country  is  at  Liverj)ool,  where 
Irish  birds  are  fattened  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  steamship 


t'lG.  4s.— Interior  Huddin's  Fattening  Shed,  Liverpo 


trade.  The  shed  consists  of  a  large  building  formerly  used  for 
tramway  stables,  and  has  capacity  for  nearly  16,000  birds.  As 
the  illustration  shows,  the  cages  are  suspended  by  wire  strands 
from  the  roof,  which  facilitates  the  work  of  keeping  clean. 

Cramming. — ^The  methods  of  fatting  adopted  are  four  in  all: 
(1)  From  the  trough;  (2)  by  hand;  (3)  by  funnel;  and  (4)  by 
machine. 

1.  This  method  has  been  already  referred  to,  and  it  is  chiefly 
employed  for  the  production  of  half-fatted  specimens,  which 
may  either  be  kept  in  the  ordinary  pens  or  in  a  house  and  run, 
holding  'a  dozen  or  a  score  of  birds,  which  can  be  moved  on  to 
fresh  ground  as  often  as  necessary.     It  is  fitted  with  troughs 


278 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


at  either  side.  One  of  these  appliances,  6  feet  long  by  3  feet  wide, 
is  large  enough  for  a  dozen  birds,  and  it  is  a  siiital)le  form  for 
ordinary  farmers.  In  Belgium  the  famous  Coucou  de  Malines  are 
fatted  entirely  from  troughs,  but  they  are  kept  in  closely-covered 
sheds  during  the  entire  process. 

2.  Some  of  the  finest  fowls  which  are  produced  both  in  England 
and  France  are  crammed  by  hand.  The  process  is,  however, 
slow,  so  that  it  is  only  suitable  where  labour  is  abundant  and 
cheap.     In  a  large  establishment  it  would  be  impossil)le  to  get 


Fig.  49. — Interior  of  Fattening  Shed. 


through  the  work  if  hand  cramming  were  depended  upon.  The 
food  is  mixed  to  a  thick  paste,  and  formed  into  pellets  or  boluses 
about  f  inch  in  length  and  -|  inch  thick.  There  are  two  ways  in 
which  feeding  takes  place.  In  the  one  a  sufficient  number  of  the 
boluses  are  prepared,  and  the  operator  takes  hold  of  the  bird's 
head,  either  in  the  pen  or  out  of  it — in  the  latter  case  firmly 
gripping  it  between  his  body  and  left  arm — opens  the  mouth  with 
the  thumb  of  his  left  hand,  dips  the  bolus  into  a  vessel  of  whey  or 
milk,  inserts  it  into  the  mouth,  presses  it  down  the  thi'oat  with 
his  finger,  and  then  carries  the  food  into  the  crop  by  running  his 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY 


279 


finger  and  thumb  down  the  outside  of  the  gullet.  The  second  plan 
varies  somewhat.  The  operator  sits  upon  a  stool,  with  a  lot  of 
the  paste  and  a  bowl  of  whey  or  milk  before  him.  The  bird  is 
placed  upon  his  knees,  its  legs  held  firmly  by  them,  the  left  hand 
holding  the  wings,  and  he  places  a  small  quantity  of  the  food, 
after  dipping  it  m  the  milk,  into  its  mouth,  allowing  it  to  swallow 
in  the  usual  manner,  there  being  no  actual  cramming.  Both 
these  methods  are  very  simple.  In  some  instances  a  combina- 
tion of  the  two  methods  is  adopted. 

3.  Cramming  by  funnel  is  largely  carried  out  in  Southern 
Normandy.  In  this  case  the  food  is  made  into  liquid  form,  about 
the  consistency  of  ordinary  cream.  A  specially-made  funnel 
(Fig.  50),  the  nozzle  of  which  is  carefully  turned  to  prevent  injury 
to  the  bird's  throat,  is  inserted  into  the  gullet  until  the  orifice 
enters  the  crop,  which  can  be  felt 
by  the  finger,  and  the  food  is 
spooned  therein  until  the  crop  is 
full,  when  the  funnel  is  with- 
drawn. In  operation  the  process 
requires  a  much  shorter  time 
than  it  takes  to  describe,  but  care 
must  be  taken,  or  there  is  great 
danger  of  choking  the  fowl. 
These  funnels  can  be  purchased 
at  a  reasonable  price,  and  sj)lendid 
quality  of  flesh  is  produced  in 
this  manner. 

4.  Cramming  by  machine  is 
found  to  be  the  most  expeditious, 
and  the  first  cost  is  speedily  saved 
in  the  labour  bill.      An  expert 

operator  can  feed  250  birds  in  an  hour,  so  that  the  duration  of 
insertion  is  very  short.  Many  people  have  the  idea  that  this 
system  is  a  cruel  one,  but  it  is  not  so.  A  careless  or  inexpert 
operator  can  hurt  the  subject,  but  it  does  not  pay  him  to  do  so, 
as  any  injury  to  the  throat  or  mouth  would  cause  inflammatory 
action  to  be  set  up,  and  it  would  die.  The  tube  which  passes  down 
the  throat  is  made  of  indiarubber,  and,  as  the  cartilaginous  rings 
of  the  neck  are  flexible,  it  enters  quite  easily.  The  way  in  which 
the  fowls  anticipate  the  feeding-time,  after  the  first  day  or  two, 
shows  how  they  regard  the  operation.  The  machines  employed 
are — (1)  the  Neve  (Fig.  51),  which  is  largely  used  in  Sussex;  and 
(2)  the  Hearson  (Fig.  52).  In  both  the  quantity  of  food  can  be 
regulated  to  a  nicety,  and  the  great  thing  is  to  cease  pressure  the 


Fig.  50.— Funnel  for  Cramming. 


280 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


monient  sufficient  has  been  placed  in  the  croj).  A  most  important 
point  in  connection  with  the  fattening  of  poultry  is  to  give  the 
food  regularly,  and  if  there  is  any  remaining  in  the  crop  from  the 
previous  meal,  not  to  give  any  at  all.  Several  French  cramming 
machines  are  made  for  liquid  food,  and  attached  to  them  is  a 
long  piece  of  indiarubber  tubing,  fitted  with  a  spring  top  or  nozzle, 
so  that  the  birds  can  be  fed  in  pens  without  taking  them  o\it,  the 
liquid  flowing  when  the  spring  is  released .  In  this  case  the  nozzle 
is  only  placed  into  the  mouth,  not  passed  down  the  throat.     The 


Fig.  51.— Neve  Crammer. 


head  must  be  held  well  up  and  the  neck  stretched  to  allow  easy 
swallowing. 

Food  for  Fattening. — The  food  supplied  to  the  fowls  during  the 
process  of  fattening  is  of  very  great  importance,  and  upon  it  must 
depend  both  the  quantity  and  flavour  of  the  flesh.  This  must 
always  be  soft  food,  never  hard  corn,  as  the  latter  would  take 
longer  to  digest,  from  the  fact  that  the  birds  are  in  confuiement 
and  would  not  give  the  same  results.  The  reason  why  animals 
fatten  better  at  rest  is  well  explained  by  Professor  Warmgton, 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY      281 

F.R.S.  He  says  that  economy  of  food  is  promoted  by  diminishing 
the  demand  for  heat  and  work.  An  animal  at  rest  will  increase 
in  weight  far  more  than  an  animal  taking  active  exercise  on  the 
same  diet.  In  the  same  way,  the  increase  from  a  given  weight  of 
food  will  be  less  in  winter  than  in  spring  or  autumn,  a  far  larger 
proportion  of  the  food  being  consumed  for  the  production  of  heat 
when  the  animal  is  living  in  a  cold  atmosphere.  Hence  the 
economy  of  feeding  animals  under  cover  during  winter.  If, 
however,  the  temperature  becomes  so  high  as  to  considerabl}' 


Fig.  52. — Hearson's  Crammer. 

increase  the  perspiration,  waste  of  food  again  takes  place,  heat 
being  consumed  in  the  evaporation  of  water.  The  temperature 
most  favourable  for  increase  is,  apparently,  about  60°  F.  Quiet- 
ness and  freedom  from  excitement  are  essential  to  rapid  fattening ; 
the  absence  of  strong  light  is  therefore  desnable.* 

In  Sussex  and    the    south-eastern  counties  the  food  almost 

entirely  employed  is  ground  oats,  which  is  largely  prepared  in 

the  Valley  of  the  Medway,  millers  there  making  a  speciality  of 

this  product.     There  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  produced 

*  "Chemistry  of  the  Farm."     Loudon:  Vinton  and  Co.,  Ltd. 


282  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

elsewhere.  It  is  necessary  that  the  mill-stones  shall  be  sharp  and 
run  very  low.  Ground  oats  must  not  be  confoinided  with  oatmeal, 
as  they  have  not  been  kiln-dried — at  any  rate,  to  the  same  extent 
— ^but  are  fresh  oats  ground  very  fine,  husk  and  all.  The  powder 
from  oatmeal  mills  is  often,  however,  used  for  this  purpose.  It 
is  found  in  experience  that  English  and  Scotch  oats  are  unsuitable 
for  this  jDurpose,  as  they  contain  too  much  moisture,  and  will  not 
grind  fine  enough  unless  they  are  highly  kiln-dried.  Conse- 
quently the  plump,  hard  Russian  oats  are  preferred,  and  from 
them  the  best  samples  are  produced.  The  usual  price  for  pure 
ground  oats  ranges  from  £9  to  £10  per  ton,  varying  in  accordance 
with  the  market  rates  for  oats.  Cheaper  kinds  are  often  sold, 
but  these  are  usually  adulterated  with  fine  thirds,  and  it  is  better 
to  obtain  the  purer,  even  though  the  cost  may  be  higher.  A 
mixture  which  is  often  employed  consists  of  one  part  ground  oats, 
one  part  fine  Indian  meal,  and  one  part  fine  sharps,  costing 
about  £6  10s.  per  ton.  In  Belgium  finely-ground  buckwheat  is 
universally  used,  giving  good  results,  and  in  France  buckwheat - 
meal  and  fine  barley-meal  are  largely  emploj^ed,  both  of  which 
are  very  good;  but  by  reason  of  the  greater  amount  of  lime  in 
ground  oats  they  produce  the  finest  flesh. 

Use  of  Milk. — With  the  meal  should  always  be  mixed  soured 
skim-milk,  butter-milk,  or  whey  from  the  curds.  In  Sussex  the 
first-named  is  alone  adopted,  and  one  of  the  largest  fatters  some- 
times pays  as  much  as  £20  in  a  week  for  milk  during  the  busy 
season.  Whole  milk  is  much  more  expensive.  The  globules 
of  butter-fat  in  it  are  too  valuable,  and  can  be  substituted  at  a 
much  cheaper  rate.  Surprise  is  often  exjiressed  that  soured 
rather  than  sweet  milk  should  be  used.  In  practice  it  is  found 
that  the  former  gives  the  better  results,  the  acid  generated  by  the 
turning  of  either  milk,  butter-milk,  or  whey,  causing  more  rapid 
digestion  than  would  be  the  case  if  it  were  sweet.  Not  onty  is  the 
milk  itself  soured,  but  when  mixed  with  meal,  as  is  usually  done 
immediately  after  one  time  of  feeding  is  over,  it  is  allowed  to 
stand  for  several  hours,  until  a  slight  fermentation  has  taken 
place.  There  are  distinct  disadvantages  from  the  giving  of 
soured  milk,  and  one  is  that  there  is  always  a  greater  tendency 
on  the  part  of  the  birds  to  scouring ;  but  f atteners  who  have  tried 
both  systems  declare  that  the  soured  skim-milk  yields  the  better 
results,  in  that  the  birds  will  eat  longer  and  digest  their  food 
more  quickly  than  if  sweet  milk  is  employed,  and  at  the  same 
time  there  is  less  danger  of  what  is  known  as  crop-sickness.  It 
is  claimed  that  the  acid  generated  in  the  milk  has  the  tendency 
to  prevent  sickness,  and  also  stimulates  the  appetite,  and  there 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY      283 

seems  to  be  a  considerable  amount  of  reason  for  this  statement. 
A  further  advantage  to  the  fattener  is  that  he  has  not  the  same 
necessity  to  obtain  his  milk  at  the  time  when  it  is  required,  and, 
in  fact,  in  many  of  the  fattening  establishments  great  vats  of 
milk  are  allowed  to  stand  for  weeks  before  using,  bought  up 
as  obtainable.  Milk  contains  a  large  amount  of  phosphates, 
which  have  the  effect  of  whitening  the  flesh.  Not  only  is 
this  true  in  respect  to  chickens,  but  also  ducklings,  goslings, 
and  turkeys.  The  use  of  milk  at  the  time  of  feeding  off  the 
turkeys  before  killing  is  found  to  residt  in  beautiful  colour  of 
flesh.  Milk  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  foods  we  have,  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  country,  the  dairy  districts  especially,  skim- 
milk  is  almost  a  waste  product.  Butter-milk  does  not  appear  to 
yield  quite  the  same  results.  It  contains  a  little  more  in  the 
way  of  fat,  and  is  somewhat  richer,  but,  as  already  stated,  it  is 
employed  in  Belgium,  and  might  be  iised  wherever  it  is  available 
in  this  country.  The  late  Mr.  Lewis  Wright*  made  a  very  interest- 
ing suggestion  as  to  soured  skim-milk:  "  The  sour  milk  keeps  the 
digestive  organs  in  proper  activity,  without  the  use  of  fresh 
vegetables,  which  would  otherwise  be  necessary.  Tell  a  Sussex 
fatter  to  use  '  boiled  milk  '  and  the  green  food  which  would  then 
be  required,  and  see  what  he  would  say." 

Feeding. — A  question  is  frequently  asked  as  to  what  influence 
the  increase  of  fat  upon  animals  and  birds,  which  are  specially 
fed  for  table  purposes,  has  so  far  as  the  edible  qualities  are  con- 
cerned. The  contention,  which  is  often  put  forward,  that  when- 
ever fattening  takes  place  there  must  be  a  certain  amount  of 
waste,  cannot  be  questioned.  It  is  impossible,  when  we  develop 
the  proportion  of  fat  in  the  flesh,  that  we  can  confine  this  only  to 
the  parts  of  the  body  which  are  consumed  as  food,  because  the 
entire  system  is  affected.  In  fattening,  whilst  the  muscle  is 
increased  largely  in  bulk  and  weight,  there  is  at  the  same  time 
a  considerable  distribution  of  fat  on  the  intestines  and  internal 
organs.  It  is  equally  true  that  the  greater  part  of  the  fat  which 
is  added  to  the  food  during  the  preparation  of  table  poultry  is 
beneficial,  in  that  the  globules  of  fat  are  distributed  through  the 
muscles  upon  the  body,  increasing  these  in  bulk,  adding  greatly 
to  the  weight  of  the  bird,  and  at  the  same  time  improving  both 
the  colour  and  quality  of  the  flesh.  If  we  take  any  animal  or 
bird  in  lean  condition  and  feel  the  muscle,  it  is  hard,  whereas 
when  the  animal  or  bird  has  been  fatted  the  muscle  is  soft,  but 
more  bulky.  It  is  necessary  that  the  muscle  shall  be  what  has 
been  termed  "  soft." 

*  "  New  Book  of  Poultry,"  London,  1902,  p.  121. 


284  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

A  rcoognized  rule  amongst  both  poulterers  and  cooks  is  that 
an  old  bird  and  a  lean  bird  should  never  be  roasted,  but  always 
boiled.  The  reason  for  this  recommendation  is  that  dry  heat, 
by  withdrawing  from  the  muscle  the  moisture  contained  therein, 
leaves  the  tissue  hard  and  fibrous,  and  consequently  less  palatable, 
whilst  it  is  distinctly  inferior  in  digestive  properties.  The  action 
of  the  water  during  boiling  is  to  soften  the  flesh  by  soaking,  and 
rather  to  increase  the  bulk  as  a  consequence  of  the  absorption 
of  moisture  into  the  flesh.  When  a  bird  is  in  fat  condition, 
however,  it  is  found  that  the  action  of  even  dry  heat  does  not 
have  this  effect,  in  that  the  globides  of  fat  distributed  through 
the  tissue,  by  melting  retain  and  increase  the  softness  of  that 
tissue.  For  that  reason  ccoks  lard  certain  kinds  of  meat  during 
the  process  of  cooking,  in  order  to  retain  the  moisture  and  to 
prevent  the  escajDe  of  the  natural  juices.  Otherwise  our  meat 
would  be  dry  throughout,  the  same  as  it  is  on  the  outside,  and 
we  know  ver}^  well  that  this  would  reduce  its  nutritive  properties, 
and  at  the  same  time  make  it  more  difficult  of  digestion.  Even 
with  fat  birds,  when  they  are  placed  in  dry  heat,  there  must  be 
an  amount  of  evaporation;  but  that  is  not  an  evaporation  of  fat, 
only  of  a  proportion  of  moisture  in  the  fat,  the  oily  property  still 
remaining  in  the  flesh. 

Fat  is  not  mixed  with  the  food  whilst  the  fowls  are  fed  from 
the  troughs,  but  when  put  on  to  the  crammer  |  ounce  should 
be  allowed  for  each  bird  per  day,  or  a  tablespoonful  for  every 
ten  fowls,  gradually  increasing  it  to  double  that  quantity.  Fat 
may  be  bought  in  barrels  for  this  purj)ose  ready  for  use,  but  in 
most  of  the  larger  towns  butchers'  scraps  can  be  purchased  at  a 
cheap  rate,  and  should  be  clarified  and  stored  ready  for  use  as 
required.  It  must,  of  course,  be  melted  and  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  meal  and  milk.  Sometimes  it  is  foinid  necessarj^,  espe- 
cially during  hot  weather,  to  take  steps  for  keeping  the  blood 
cool.  A  little  flowers  of  sulphur  is  laseful  to  this  end.  Some 
falters  boil  nettles,  and,  after  chopping  them  uj),  mix  with  the 
food. 

Fowls  should  alwaj's  be  fed  twice  a  daj^  and  at  regular  times. 
The  exact  hours  will  vary  in  accordance  with  the  season  of  the 
year.  In  summer  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  six  o'clock 
in  the  evening  will  be  found  the  most  suitable,  but  in  winter 
eight  in  the  morning  and  four  in  the  afternoon  will  be  better. 
In  this  case  the  evening  meal  should  be  rather  fuller  than  that 
in  the  morning. 

Frequently  it  is  found  that  birds  when  first  put  up  fret  by 
reason  of  the  confinement,  and,  instead  of  putting  on  flesh , 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY  285 

actually  lose  weight.  To  prevent  this,  they  should  be  kept  with- 
out an}^  food  for  the  first  twenty -four  hours,  or,  if  they  have  come 
a  long  journey,  for  the  first  twelve  hours,  by  which  time  they  are 
so  eager  for  food  as  to  forget  about  anything  else.  They  then 
take  a  hearty  meal  and  are  content.  Or  a  little  broken  maize 
may  be  spread  on  the  top  of  the  food  in  the  trough  in  order  to 
tempt  them  to  eat.  Coarse  grit  added  to  the  mixture  will  be  of 
benefit.  When  trough-fed,  all  that  remains  must  be  taken  away 
as  soon  as  the  birds  are  satisfied.  Some  fatters  feed  only  once 
on  Sundays,  which  is  found  to  do  no  harm,  though  that  is 
usually  a  question  of  labour. 

Feathers  and  Manure. — ^Where  larger  numbers  of  fowls  are 
fatted,  the  feathers  and  manure  form  important  items,  and  should 
be  carefully  collected  and  disposed  of  to  the  best  advantage. 
Fatters  have  informed  me  that  they  were  able  to  pay  their  wage- 
bill by  the  sale  of  these  articles.  Feathers  should  be  sorted  and 
dried ;  manure  must  be  kept  dry  and  under  cover,  and  it  is  in 
demand  by  market-gardeners,  selling  at  from  £2  10s.  to  £3  per 
ton.  If  the  fatting  establishment  is  run  in  connection  with  a 
fruit  or  ordinary  farm,  an  outlet  will  be  found  for  it  in  this 
way. 

Killing  Fowls. — All  classes  of  poultry  should  be  kept  without 
food  for  twenty-four  hours  before  they  are  killed,  the  object 
of  which  is  to  empty  the  crop  and  intestines.  Partly  digested 
food  rapidly  decomposes  after  the  bird  is  dead,  and  if  left 
there  a  great  amount  of  loss  arises  as  a  result.  This  is  fre- 
quently indicated  by  a  green  appearance  of  the  skin  over  the 
crop,  due  to  chemical  action,  which  reduces  the  value  consider- 
ably, as  the  flesh  also  is  affected,  more  especially  in  warm  weather. 
Not  alone  is  this  denial  of  food  most  important,  so  that  the  bird 
will  keep  for  a  longer  period,  but  also  it  will  be  much  easier  to 
draw.  No  cruelty  is  involved,  as  the  body  reserves  would  enable 
it  to  live  for  several  days  without  any  food  whatever. 

Killing  fowls  is  by  no  means  difficult.  One  method  is  to  hang 
the  birds  up  by  the  legs,  and  then  thrust  a  pointed  knife  into  the 
roof  of  the  mouth,  rather  in  a  backward  direction  than  to  the 
top  of  the  skull.  This  is  in  order  to  reach  the  brain,  for  then 
death  ensues  very  speedily,  and  with  very  little  pain  to  the 
victim.  The  birds  should  be  allowed  to  hang  until  the  blood 
has  ceased  running,  and  be  plucked  immediately.  In  all  cases 
where  fowls  are  killed  to  be  sent  to  market  they  should  be 
plucked  by  the  farmer,  and  the  value  of  feathers  he  will  obtain 
will  more  than  repay  the  labour  of  plucking,  though  this  is  not 


286  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

its  object.     A  si^ecial  knife  should  be  employed;  iSpratt's  Patent 
sell  one  very  suitable  for  this  purpose. 

Dislocation  of  the  Neck. — ^The  common  method  of  killing  fowls 
is  by  dislocation  of  the  neck,  and  there  can  be  no  question  that 
in  the  hands  of  an  expert  operator  this  plan  is  most  expeditious, 
and  with  the  minimum  of  pain  to  the  victim.  It  is  not  easy  to 
follow  the  method  from  a  printed  descrij)tion.  The  bird  should 
be  held  firmly  by  the  legs  in  the  left  hand,  which  can  grasp  the 
ends  of  the  wings  also,  the  head  in  the  right  hand  between  two 
of  the  fingers  back  of  the  skull,  so  that  the  comb  lies  in  the  palm, 
the  back  of  the  bird  upwards.  The  legs  are  then  pressed  against 
the  left  hip,  and  the  head  laid  against  the  right  thigh  near  the 
knee.  Next  the  fowl  should  be  rapidly  and  firmly  extended  or 
drawn  to  its  full  length,  and  at  the  same  time  the  head  is  sud- 
denly bent  backwards,  by  which  means  the  neck  is  dislocated 
just  below  the  junction  with  the  head,  and  death  iumiediately 
ensues,  as  all  the  large  vessels  are  torn  across.  The  operator 
must  not  be  nervous,  nor  yet  afraid,  performing  the  work  firmly 
and  expeditiously.  Muscular  action  will  take  place  for  a  few 
minutes,  but  if  the  operation  is  effective  no  pain  is  suffered.  It 
is  always  better  to  pluck  whilst  the  fowl  is  still  warm,  as  the 
feathers  then  come  out  easily  and  the  skin  does  not  tear.  There 
is  no  cruelty  involved  by  doing  so,  for  all  sensation  is  at  an  end, 
the  brain,  which  is  the  centre  of  all  feeling,  being  completely 
severed  from  the  body.  In  plucking,  the  operator  should  sit 
down,  hold  the  legs  in  the  left  hand,  the  head  hanging  between 
his  knees,  so  that  the  blood  flows  towards  the  head  and  gathers  in 
the  neck,  without  making  anj^  mess.  It  is  better  to  di'aw  the 
feathers  with  an  upward  pull — that  is,  the  opposite  way  to  which 
they  lie  on  the  bod}'.  An  expert  operator  can  kill  and  pluck 
twelve  birds  per  hour. 

Shaping. — Shaping  is  carried  out  in  Surrey  and  Sussex  as  part 
of  the  fyrocess,  and  is  one  reason  why  Surrey  fowls  look  so  much 
superior  to  those  not  finished  off  in  the  same  manner.  This 
system  is,  moreover,  so  simple  that  it  can  be  adopted  at  very 
small  expense,  shaping  boards  being  very  easily  made.  Fig.  53 
shows  one  built  in  three  rows,  capable  of  holding  thirty  to  thirty- 
six  birds  at  one  time.  For  smaller  producers  it  can  be  built  with 
one  row,  and  the  cost  of  material  for  construction  of  the  larger 
size  would  not  be  more  than  four  shillings.  Each  trough  is  made 
V-shaped,  the  front  of  which  is  rather  narrower  than  the  back. 
These  troughs  consist  of  only  twelve  pieces  of  wood — namely: 
'"  (1)  The  two  upright  ends,  36  niches  by  7  inches;  (2)  three  troughs. 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY  287 

each  made  of  two  pieces,  at  right  angles,  the  back  board  6  inches 
wide  and  the  front  5  inches,  and  30  inches  long;  (3)  the  bottom 
stay;  (4)  three  loose  boards,  ^  inch  shorter  than  the  troughs  and 
4  inches^wide.  It  is  better  to  use  plain  deals  |  or  f  inch  thick, 
and  fit  the  whole  firmly  together. 

The  modus  operandi  is  as  follows:  As  soon  as  the  birds  are 
plucked,  which  should  be  done  carefully  and  thoroughly,  the 
hocks  are  tied  loosely  together,  so  that  the  legs  are  fiat  against 
either  side  of  the  breast.  Before  doing  so,  however,  some  of  the 
more  skilful  fatters  draw  the  meat  upwards  by  means  of  the  hands, 
which  undoubtedly  improves  the  appearance  of  the  bird,  though 
it  must  be  done  carefully  to  prevent  breaking  of  the  skin.     Ihc 


Fig.  53.— SiiAriNG  Boakd. 

operator  strikes  the  stern  against  a  wall,  thus  flattening  and 
making  it  fit  the  shaping  trough  more  easily.  Each  bird  is  laid 
in  the  trough  breast  downwards,  with  the  neck  and  head  hanging 
over  the  front.  The  first  bird  is  pressed  firmly  against  the  end 
of  the  trough,  and  a  weight  or  glazed  brick  laid  by  the  side  to 
keep  it  in  position.  When  the  second  and  succeeding  birds  are 
placed  m  the  trough,  the  weight  is  moved  along  until  quite  full. 
It  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  i:)acked  firml}^  and  tightly  in 
this  way.  Next  a  loose  board,  4  inches  wide,  and  ^  inch  shorter 
than  the  trough,  is  laid  upon  the  back  of  the  fowls,  just  behind 
the  wings.  Upon  this  are  placed  three  or  four  heavj^  glazed 
bricks,  or  two  weights  (56  pounds  for  jDreference),  and  the  fowls 


288 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  trough  for  several  hours — in  fact, 
until  they  are  quite  cold  and  set. 

Stubbing. — ^^Miatever  the  system  of  shaping  adopted,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  bird  be  plucked  carefully,  and  it  is  customary 
in  some  parts  to  employ  the  services  of  persons  called  "  stubbers." 
If  an}^  of  the  feathers,  and  especially  the  short  quills,  are  left  in 
the  flesh,  they  will,  of  course,  materially  depreciate  the  appear- 
ance. We  desire  to  urge  upon  every  producer  the  duty  to  him- 
self and  the  industry  at  large  of  turning  out  the  fowls  in  the  very 
best  manner  possible.  8ome  fatters  arc  very  fond  of  breaking 
the  breast-bone  of  fowls,  and  this  is  frequently  done  in  Sussex. 
It  is  a  most  objectionable  i)ractice,  and  one  that  ought  never  to 
be  adopted.  As  a  rule,  all  Surrey  and  Sussex  fowls  arc  singed 
immediately  they  are  plucked  and  stubbed;  and  when  properly 
done    this  custom  is  most  desirable,   as   it    is    simply    clearing 


Fig.  54. — Sussex  Packing  Ped. 


the  skin  of  surplus  hair  and  feathers.     The  flesh  must  not  be 
Ijlacked.     Straw  alone  should  be  used. 

Packing. — Much  carelessness  is  shown  in  the  packing  of  dead 
poultry,  which  needs  especial  care.  I  have  seen  crates  of 
chickens  opened,  and  their  value  materially  reduced  by  reason 
of  bad  packing,  many  of  the  birds  being  "  barked  ''  or  other- 
wise damaged.  These  ought  to  be  packed  firmly  and  evenly, 
and  if  this  is  done  they  will  carry  long  distances  in  perfect 
safety.  In  this  country  specially-made  crates,  or  "  peds,"  as 
they  are  called,  are  employed,  which  combine  lightness  with 
strength.  These  (Fig.  .'54)  are  lined  out  with  straw,  with  layers 
of  the  same  material  between  each  row.  The  birds  are  placed 
with  the  sterns  to  the  sides,  and  in  double  rows.  In  France  Hnen 
cloths,  which  are  first  dipped  in  milk,  are  often  employed,  and 
for  the  better  class  of  fowls  thev  are  to  be  recommended.     It 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY  289 

may  be  mentioned  that  some  of  the  railway  companies  are 
willing  to  supply  hampers  free  of  charge  for  conveyance  of  dead 
poultry. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  best  results,  chickens  should  always  be 
killed  where  they  are  fatted,  otherwise  much  of  the  benefit 
obtained  by  the  system  will  be  lost.  A  fatted  fowl  will  lose  a 
considerable  portion  of  its  added  weight  if  sent  to  market  alive, 
due  to  the  change  of  condition.  The  same  thing  is  found  in 
connection  with  larger  stock.  In  these  days  of  refrigerating 
chambers  there  is  no  difficulty  in  keeping  dead  poultry  for  several 
days,  in  order  to  avoid  glutting  the  market. 

Caponizing. — Before  leaving  this  subject,  it  is  important  to 
deal  with  the  question  of  caponizing.  There  can  be  no  question 
that  the  system  of  caponizing  is  one  that  deserves  considerably 
more  attention  than  it  has  ever  received  in  this  country.  If  for 
no  other  cause,  it  could  have  been  reasonably  expected  that 
pecuniary  motives  would  lead  farmers  and  large  poultry-keepers  to 
adopt  the  system;  cockerels  caponized,  and  pullets  made  into 
poulardes,  grow  to  a  very  much  larger  size  than  those  not  so 
treated,  and  it  is  true  that  the  quality  of  the  meat  is  much 
improved;  not  only  so,  but  male  birds  which  could  not  be  kept 
together  without  great  danger  of  constant  conflicts  will  live  in 
peace  and  amity.  Upon  the  ground  of  profit,  it  is  strongly 
recommended  that  all  male  fowls  intended  for  table  in  the  autumn 
should  be  caponized,  because  the  surplus  cockerels  can  thus  be 
made  the  most  of,  and  will  realize  for  the  breeder  more  than  they 
otherwise  would. 

The  best  birds  to  operate  upon  are  chickens  which  have  never 
yet  crowed,  and  when  about  eight  to  twelve  weeks  is  the  right  age. 
They  must  be  kept  without  food  for  thirty-six  hours  or  more 
before  being  operated  upon.  A  good  light  (sunshine,  if  possible) 
should  be  chosen  to  operate  in,  and  the  full  light  should  be 
allowed  to  shine  in  the  chicken's  side  when  opened.  First  take 
two  good  thick  pieces  of  strmg  or  thin  cord  3  feet  long;  to  one 
end  of  each  attach  a  weight,  or  any  equivalent  in  the  form  of  a 
brick  or  stone,  fastening  the  other  end  of  the  string  to  the 
chicken's  legs.  Then  lay  the  bird  on  its  left  side,  and  drop  the 
weighted  end  of  the  string  over  one  side  of  the  operating-table. 
Now  tie  the  free  end  of  the  second  string  round  the  bird's  wings 
near  the  body,  and  di'op  the  weighted  end  of  this  string  over  the 
other  side  of  the  table.  The  chicken  will  thus  be  properly  secured, 
and  the  operator  must  stand  so  that  its  back  will  be  towards  him. 
The  small  feathers  from  hip-bone  to  ribs,  over  the  last  rib,  must 
now  be  plucked  off,  and  the  ribs  and  feathers  all  round  should 

19 


290  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

be  wetted  with  a  sponge  dipped  in  quite  cold  water ;  or  ice  can  be 
used  if  preferred.  This  wetting  will  serve  to  keep  the  feathers  out 
of  the  operator's  way,  and  will  also  numb  the  sensations  of  the 
fowl,  so  that  it  does  not  appear  to  feel  the  operator's  knife.  Stick 
the  knife  in  |  inch  deep  between  the  first  and  second  ribs  from  the 
hip-bone,  and  cut  downwards  and  forwards  to  the  end  of  the  ribs. 
Turn  the  knife,  and  cut  nearly  up  to  the  backbone.  Now  put 
in  the  spreader,  which  is  one  of  the  instruments  used,  tempering 
the  tension  by  a  rubber  band  provided  for  the  purpose  to  suit 
the  size  of  the  fowl,  and  with  the  spreader  open  the  ribs,  after 
which  split  the  inside  striffin  that  covers  the  bowels.  The  upper 
testicle  will  now  be  exposed,  and  should  be  grasj)ed  by  the 
grippers,  which  should  be  given  one  entire  turn  over  so  as  to 
separate  the  testicle  from  its  attachments,  except  the  spermatic 
cord,  and  pull  the  testicle  out.  Treat  the  lower  testicle  in  the 
same  waj^  It  is  necessary  to  be  careful  not  to  rupture  the  large 
vein  under  the  testicles,  and  also  to  get  the  whole  of  the  latter 
out.  The  bird  may  be  untied  and  allowed  to  go  without  the 
incision  being  sewn  up,  but  for  a  few  days  it  should  not  be  allowed 
to  Hy  up  to  roost.  Birds  ma}^  in  this  manner  be  caponized  in 
any  number,  and  without  loss  of  more  than  1  or  2  per  cent. 
Large  breeds  of  poultry,  when  caponized  young  and  well  fed 
until  ten  or  eleven  months  old,  and  then  fattened,  will  weigh 
10  to  15  pounds  each,  and  the  meat  on  them  will  be  found  of 
the  tenderest  and  most  succulent  description. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  chief  dangers  found  in  practice  with 
all  systems  of  caponizing  is  in  tearing  the  veins  near  the  testicles, 
which  results  in  the  bird's  bleeding  to  death,  and  in  the  losing 
of  the  testicles  amongst  the  intestines,  which  latter  is  almost 
certain  to  cause  mflammation  and  death.  These  seldom  happen, 
except  through  want  of  care  or  inexperience,  but  it  is  important 
to  have  a  good  light  in  order  to  prevent  it  as  far  as  possible. 

Dressing  and  Trussing. — ^Fowls  which  are  being  marketed  in  the 
usual  manner  must  never  be  drawn  or  cut  in  any  way,  as  the 
final  work  is  performed  by  the  poulterer  in  accordance  with  his 
customer's  requirements.  When  chickens  are  sold  direct  to 
customers,  it  is  better  if  the}^  can  be  delivered  ready  for  cooking. 
Cooks  are  not  nearty  so  expert  at  this  business  as  thej^  were  for- 
merly, and,  further,  they  naturalh^  prefer  to  have  a  bird  which  does 
not  entail  the  labour  necessary  if  it  is  sent  undrawn.  In  some  parts 
of  the  United  Kingdom  the  method  adopted  by  poulterers  is  by 
no  means  the  best,  and  the  following  explains,  as  far  as  possible 
in  print,  the  system  which  gives  the  most  satisfactory  results. 
For  this  purpose  a  special  knife  is  required,  and  a  trussing  needle 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY  293 

(12-mch  preferred,  as  then  it  can  be  used  for  turkeys,  which  are 
trussed  in  the  same  manner),  and  some  fine,  strong  string. 

Milk  Chickens,  or  Petits  Poussins. — ^Milk  chickens  are  very 
young  birds,  usually  five  to  eight  weeks  old.  They  go  under 
the  same  designation  in  Belgium,  where  they  are  more  popular 
than  with  us.  In  France  they  are  called  petits  poussins.  To 
a  somewhat  heavier  class  of  bird  in  America  is  given  the  name 
of  "  squab  broiler."  So  far  as  the  great  mass  of  consumers  is 
concerned,  this  class  of  chickens  are  practically  unknown,  simply 
by  reason  of  the  fact  that  they  are  too  expensive.  The  cus- 
tomary plan  is  to  serve  one  to  each  guest,  and  at  great  houses, 
the  chef  brings  them  round  as  the  piece  de  resistance  of  the  feast. 
When  plump  and  well  cooked,  these  occupy  the  place  of  the 
most  delicious  dish  that  can  be  obtained  among  all  the  various 
grades  of  poultry,  as  the  flesh  is  beautifully  tender,  and  wonder- 
fully abundant  if  the  birds  are  killed  at  the  proper  stage. 

Attempts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  to  introduce  the 
raising  of  these  milk  chickens  in  this  country,  but  except  here 
and  there  the  business  has  not  grown  to  any  extent.  Some  years 
ago  an  effort  was  made  to  establish  a  so-called  chicken  farm 
in  Belgium,  where  poulets  de  lait  could  be  turned  out  by  the 
thousand,  reared  upon  shelves.  That  did  not  succeed.  The 
mortality  on  the  one  side  and  the  expenses  on  the  other  were 
too  great  to  allow  of  profitable  continuance. 

Formerly  the  majority  of  milk  chickens  sold  upon  our  markets 
— that  is,  in  London;  for  the  demand  in  provincial  centres  is 
very  small  indeed,  and  uncertain  at  that — were  imported  from 
France.  In  the  Seine-et-Oise  department  of  that  country  large 
numbers  are  reared,  as  the  demand  in  Paris  is  considerable. 
Probably  all  the  best  specimens  are  still  derived  from  there,  and 
in  flesh  qualities  these  are  superior  to  any  others. 

Within  recent  years  the  greater  portion  of  the  milk  chickens 
upon  our  markets  have  come  from  Germany,  and  as  they  reach 
us  through  the  port  of  Hamburg  that  name  is  given  to  them. 
The  districts  in  which  they  are  produced  are  found  in  the 
provinces  of  Oldenburg,  Hanover,  Schleswig-Holstein,  and 
around  Lubeck,  near  the  Dummer  See.  The  production  is  very 
large  indeed.  Within  one  comparatively  limited  area  in  Hanover, 
near  to  the  little  town  of  Winsen,  it  is  estimated  that  300,000 
to  400,000  are  bred  and  killed  every  year,  the  great  majority 
of  which  are  despatched  to  London.  This  is  a  great  corn- 
growing  district,  and  a  considerable  number  of  the  farmers 
produce  a  few  hundreds  each  every  year;  whilst  a  fair  proportion 
of  the  labourers  and  their  wives  add  to  their  incomes  in  this 


294  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

manner,  thus  supporting  what  has  been  stated  previously — 
namely,  that  it  is  a  means  of  adding  to  income,  not  a  business  by 
itself.  As  the  chickens  are  sold  for  killing  when  five  to  seven 
weeks  old,  the  prices  obtained,  varying  from  9d.  to  lid.  each, 
leave  a  fair  margin  of  profit  for  the  labour  ravolved,  as  it  is 
well  known  that,  inclusive  of  cost  of  egg  and  food,  they  can  be 
raised  to  that  age  at  4d.  to  5d.  each,  provided,  of  course,  there 
is  no  heavy  mortality  to  reduce  the  returns.  That  has  been 
avoided  from  the  fact  that  the  rearing  is  well  distributed,  and 
the  quantit}^  named  is  due  to  the  work  of  a  large  number  of 
individual  breeders. 

Here  is  the  secret  of  success.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Sussex 
production  of  table  chickens,  the  primary  stages  of  the  work  are 
in  many  hands,  and  only  the  final  stage  concentrated.  To  that 
end  it  is  requisite  that  there  must  be  uniformitj^  of  operation 
within  an  adequate  area,  in  order  to  insure  a  sufficiency  of  supply. 
Isolated  action  is  useless,  unless  it  be  on  a  very  large  scale. 
The  birds,  when  ready,  are  sold  to  dealers,  who  undertake  the 
work  of  killing,  plucking,  and  marketing. 

Spring  Chickens. — ^From  April  to  early  June  there  is  a  very 
large  demand  for  what  are  known  as  sj)ring  chickens — that 
is,  birds  eleven  to  fourteen  weeks  old.  As  a  rule  these  have  not 
been  fattened  in  the  manner  described  above,  but  simply  fed 
for  a  couple  of  weeks  before  killing  on  food  in  which  soured  skim- 
milk  is  used  freely.  It  is  entirely  a  question  as  to  whether  these 
birds  have  been  kept  growing  all  the  time,  and  are  killed  at 
the  right  age.  Immediately  prior  to  the  time  when  the  birds 
cast  their  chicken  plumage  and  the  sexual  instincts  will  be  more 
fully  developed,  the  body  will  be  found  heavier,  the  flesh  more 
abundant  and  softer  than  will  be  the  case  afterwards,  until  three 
to  four  months  have  elapsed.  That  is  the  time  they  should  be 
killed,  and  if  of  the  right  breeds  will  weigh  from  2  to  3  pounds. 
Such  birds  do  not  need  fattening,  except  what  has  already  been 
stated,  and  usually  command  good  prices.  In  fact,  sold  at 
2s.  6d.  each  they  are  probably  more  profitable  to  the  producer. 
They  must,  however,  be  marketed  during  the  months  mentioned, 
as  the  prices  are  lower  later. 

Winter  Fowls. — During  the  autumn  and  winter  months  there 
is  a  fair  demand  for  larger  birds  weighing  7  to  9  pounds,  for 
which  good  prices  are  paid,  though  the  trade  has  not  been 
developed  in  Britain  to  the  same  extent  as  in  other  countries. 
Such  have  always  formed  an  important  part  of  jjoultry  husbandry 
in  France,  notably  in  the  Bresse  country  and  in  Normandy, 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY      295 

where  the  splendid  fowls  marketed  at  Christmas  and  Mardi  Gras 
(Shrove  Tuesday)  are  among  the  finest  I  have  ever  seen.  Al- 
though large  in  size — 1  have  seen  a  couple  of  La  Fleche  weighing 
23|  pounds  dead — ^they  are  beautifully  soft  in  flesh,  which  is 
very  abundant.  That  is  true  of  the  Bresse,  du  Mans,  and 
others.  The  secret  is  to  keep  the  birds  growing  and  to  fatten 
off  in  the  best  manner.  Most  of  the  cockerels  are  caponized, 
but  the  perfection  for  flesh  is  the  French  poularde — ^that  is,  a 
pullet  which  has  never  laid  an  egg. 

Poulets  de  Bruxelles. — ^In  Belgium  a  great  industry  has  been 
developed  in  the  provinces  of  East  Flanders  and  West  Antwerp, 
which  will  be  foimd  fully  described  in  my  "  Report  on  the 
Poultry  Industry  in  Belgium."  Unfortunately,  the  districts 
referred  to  have  been  devastated  by  an  epidemic,  as  a  result  of 
which  hundreds  of  thousands  of  chickens  have  died.  This  has 
been  entirely  due  to  the  false  methods  adopted  in  connection 
with  the  conditions  under  which  the  stock  has  been  maintained, 
to  the  false  systems  of  breeding,  hatching,  rearing,  and  feeding, 
during  the  earlier  stages.  vSo  long  as  those  who  reared  the  birds 
did  so  on  open  ground,  giving  both  parents  and  chickens  liberty, 
all  went  well.  With  increase  of  numbers  and  concentration 
upon  limited,  manure -tainted  areas,  the  result  has  been  what  is 
stated  above.  That  will  alwaj-s  be  the  case  when  such  methods 
are  adopted,  as  these  are  destructive  of  natural  vitality,  and 
birds  want  all  that  they  can  possibly  conserve.  I  am  firmly 
convinced  that  this  industry  can  regain  its  former  position, 
provided  the  extensive  system  is  resumed,  and  the  false  methods 
followed  of  late  are  abandoned,  making  the  poultry  part  of  a 
rotation,  and  not  keeping  birds  on  the  same  ground  year  after 
year  consecutively. 

Usually,  these  Malines  fowls,  or  poulets  de  Bruxelles,  as  they 
are  called,  are  from  five  to  eight  months  old.  They  carry  an 
abundance  of  excellent  flesh,  which  is  fine  in  texture  and  white 
in  colour.  The  trade  done  with  Germany  is  a  very  large  one, 
and  was,  until  this  outbreak  of  disease,  very  profitable  to  all 
concerned. 

American  Soft  Roasters. — In  the  State  of  Massachusetts  I 
visited  a  section,  to  the  south  of  Boston  Bay,  where  a  similar 
branch  of  poultry  husbandry  has  been  developed  with  great 
success,  for  the  supply  of  Boston  and  other  markets.  In  the 
work  a  considerable  number  of  raisers  are  engaged,  each  of  which 
sells  from  3,000  to  6,000  chickens  a  year.  The  breeds  used  for 
this  pm'pose  are  the  Light  Brahma  (American  type)    and  the 


296  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

White  Plymouth  Rock,  both  of  which,  although  slow  growers, 
develop  big  frames.  The  farms  upon  which  the  work  is  done 
are  usually  about  40  to  60  acres;  the  land  is  light  and  somewhat 
poor,  but  there  is  a  good  deal  of  scrub  upon  it.  The  colony  house 
system  is  very  general,  both  for  breeding  stock  and  older  chickens. 
In  a  few  cases  long-range  houses  with  divided  yards  are  used  for 
breeding  stock,  but  the  chickens  are  raised  in  scattered  colony 
houses.  It  is  customary  to  jilough  up  the  land  each  year  and 
plant  with  rye  grass.  Both  natural  and  artificial  methods  of 
hatching  are  employed,  chiefly  the  latter,  and  the  chickens 
are  reared  in  brooder  houses  until  they  can  dispense  with  heat, 
when  they  are  placed  in  colony  houses.  Here  they  are  kept 
in  flocks  of  fifty  until  sold  for  killing.  These  houses  are  7  feet 
by  6  feet,  with  netted  fronts.  The  inmates  are  given  free  range 
on  the  scrub  land,  of  which  not  more  than  10  acres  are  used  at 
one  time ;  and  as  it  is  only  occupied  for  seven  months  of  the  year, 
when  vacated  it  is  cropped  to  vitilize  the  manure  and  sweeten 
the  soil.  The  method  of  feeding  is  simple  in  the  extreme. 
Hoppers  are  kept  both  in  the  brooder  and  colony  houses,  con- 
taining cracked  Indian  corn,  wheat,  and  beef -scrap.  At  one 
time  Indian  corn  was  largely  employed,  but  several  of  the  feeders 
are  finding  that  wheat  gives  better  results.  In  some  cases  dry 
mash  is  supplied,  more  especially  during  the  later  stages.  Cab- 
bages are  freely  given,  and  rye  grass,  when  available,  is  eaten  by 
the  birds,  who  have  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  water.  It  is 
claimed  that  under  this  system  the  birds  make  steady  progress, 
retaining  the  softness  of  flesh  which  is  regarded  as  essential. 
For  the  smaller  roasters,  in  demand  during  the  spring  and 
summer.  White  Plymouth  Rocks  are  said  to  be  the  better,  as  they 
grow  quickly  and  make  5  to  6  pound  specimens.  But  for  the 
winter  trade,  when  8  to  10  pound  birds  command  the  highest 
prices,  the  slower-growing  Light  Brahma  is  preferred.  The 
cockerels  of  the  last-named  are  alwaj^s  caponized.  It  may, 
however,  be  mentioned  that  these  South  Shore  Roasters  are  sold 
alive  by  the  breeders,  and  that  the  final  work  is  done  by  special- 
ists, who  kill,  pluck,  and  sell.  There  is  no  actual  fattening,  for 
the  birds  are  selected  as  they  come  into  plump  condition.  These 
sell  wholesale  on  the  markets  at  Is.  2d.  to  Is.  6d.  per  pound, 
and  retail  at  Is.  6d.  to  2s.  per  pound. 

In  France,  Belgium  and  America  success  depends  upon  the 
industr}^  being  that  of  a  district,  as  is  the  case  in  our  south- 
eastern counties.  I  am  convinced  there  are  great  opportunities 
elsewhere  for  creation  of  similar  district  industries,  and  that  a 
greater  demand  can  be  created  for  winter  fowls. 


PRODUCTION  OF  TABLE  POULTRY  297 

The  Paynter  Method. — ^An  experiment  has  recently  been  made 
on  behalf  of  the  English  Board  of  Agriculture,  with  the  object  of 
showing  that  chickens  could  be  profitably  raised  by  small 
holders  on  intensive  lines,  but  up  to  the  present  has  not  been 
determined.  The  idea  was  that  of  Mr.  F.  G.  Paynter,  who  has 
devoted  himself  to  this  question  for  several  years.  He  claims 
that,  on  a  holding  of,  say,  16  acres,  4  acres  should  be  used  each 
year  for  chickens,  and  by  changing  the  area  form  a  four-course 
rotation.  Thus  12  acres  would  be  under  crops  each  year, 
which,  if  properly  cultivated,  should  yield  a  substantial  profit. 
In  the  experiment  referred  to,  all  the  eggs  were  purchased, 
hatched  in  incubators,  the  chickens  raised  in  brooders,  and  the 
birds  sold  alive  at  twelve  to  sixteen  weeks  old.  The  poor 
averages  in  hatching,  the  heavy  mortality,  and  the  high  cost  of 
feeding,  made  the  profits  small  for  the  cost  and  labour  involved. 
Whether  further  tests  will  show  a  better  result  remains  to  be 
seen.     Were  that  possible,  a  new  field  would  be  opened. 

Shelf  Brooders. — ^More  than  twenty-five  years  ago  I  visited 
Germany  to  inspect  a  farm  in  the  Metz  district,  where  an  attempt 
was  being  made  to  hatch  chickens  artificially  and  rear  in  rooms 
of  an  old  chateau.  That  was  a  failure.  In  America  I  saw  tests 
being  made  with  the  same  idea,  but  the  birds  were  kept  on 
shelves.  More  recently  a  large  amount  of  money  was  lost  in 
England  in  the  same  way  on  two  occasions.  In  all  the  difficulty 
was  identical — namely,  that  the  mortality  was  excessive.  There 
is  and  must  be  no  finality  in  poultry  husbandry.  At  the  same 
time,  those  to  whom  profit  is  essential  will  be  well  advised  to 
leave  such  speculative  methods  to  others  who  have  money  to 
burn,  until  these  have  been  proved. 


CHAPTER  XVm 

THE  DUCK  INDUSTRY 

In  no  branch  of  poultry  husbandry  have  there  been  greater 
developments,  equally  in  Europe  and  America,  than  production 
of  ducklings,  which,  whilst  not  likely  to  attain  the  same  promi- 
nence as  egg  production  or  the  raising  of  chickens,  is  of  consider- 
able importance.  A  noteworthy  featiae  is  that  it  has  proved 
successful  both  in  the  hands  of  smaller  men  and  where  extensive 
operations  are  carried  out,  as  described  below.  In  the  former 
case,  as  a  rule,  the  object  is  to  produce  birds  to  meet  a  seasonal 
demand,  for  which  high  prices  are  obtainable.  That  is  specially 
the  case  in  England,  Belgium,  and  France.  Although  this 
section  of  the  industry  has  not  grown  to  any  great  extent,  it  is 
of  considerable  value,  economically  and  socially,  in  that  a  large 
number  of  breeders  thus  obtain  a  partial  or  entire  livelihood. 
During  the  sj)ring  months  of  the  year  there  is  a  profitable  demand 
for  ducklings  at  what  may  appear  excessive  prices,  which  leave 
a  considerable  margin  of  profit.  Where  operations  are  con- 
ducted on  a  more  extensive  scale,  the  general  demand  is  supplied,, 
usually  at  a  later  period,  when  rates  are  not  so  good.  That  there 
are  limitations  to  the  possibilities  of  this  trade  cannot  be  contro- 
verted, even  though  these  are  not  yet  in  sight.  A  ducklmg  forms 
an  expensive  dish  which  is  beyond  the  means  of  the  great  mass 
of  householders,  especially  as  the  amount  of  flesh  upon  it  is  com- 
paratively small.  Ducklings  are  birds  nine  to  twelve  weeks  old, 
in  accordance  with  the  breed,  killed  prior  to  the  time  when  the 
duckling  feathers  are  cast  and  the  adult  plumage  assumed.  On 
fully-grown  winter  ducks  the  flesh  is  usually  abundant,  and  in 
some  breeds  fuller  in  flavour  and  higher  in  nutrition  than  is  the 
case  with  that  of  ducklings.  I  question,  however,  whether  these 
can  be  produced  profitably,  as  ducks  are  heavy  eaters.  Duck- 
breeding  is  a  highly  specialized  business,  needing  considerable 
skill.  Those  who  undertake  it  should  proceed  cautiously,  and 
in  accordance  with  their  experience. 


THE  DUCK  INDUSTRY  299 

Aylesbury  Ducklings. — ^At  one  time  this  branch  of  poultry 
husbandry  was  almost  entirely  restricted  to  Buckinghamshire, 
of  which  the  Vale  of  Aylesbury  was  the  centre.  Within  recent 
years  it  has  extended  into  Bedfordshire  and  Oxfordshire,  so  far 
as  that  section  of  the  country  is  concerned.  Now  in  Norfolk, 
Suffolk,  Lancashire,  Lincolnshire,  and  in  Cambridgeshire,  duck- 
raising  on  advanced  lines  is  to  be  met  with.  The  pre-eminence 
which  once  marked  Buckinghamshire,  Bedfordshire,  and  Oxford- 
shire, is  no  longer  theirs,  although  the  highest -priced  ducklings 
are  sent  from  the  three  counties  named.  At  one  period  it  was 
contended  that  there  were  some  special  virtues  in  the  district, 
more  especially  the  gravel  found  in  the  celebrated  vale,  which 
explained  the  quality  of  the  ducklings.  That,  however,  is  with- 
out justification.  The  duckers  of  Bucks  believed  that  they  need 
not  fear  any  competition,  and,  finding  the  industry  a  profitable 
one,  refused  to  advance  with  the  times.  It  was  not  for  many 
j^ears  after  incubators  had  been  successfully  operated  for  duck- 
hatching  in  other  parts  of  the  country  that  the  duckers  would 
even  consider  the  desirability  of  adding  to  their  productive 
power  in  this  manner.  Many  of  the  younger  men  have  recog- 
nized the  necessity  for  progressive  methods. 

Selection  and  Breeding. — ^The  first  point  to  be  regarded  is  selec- 
tion of  the  stock  birds,  which  is  of  great  importance,  not  only 
with  regard  to  breed — though  that  is  a  most  necessary  con- 
sideration— but  also  as  to  age  and  time  of  hatching.  For  early 
ducklings  there  is  nothing  better  than  the  Aylesbury  as  a  pure 
breed.  It  is  a  rapid  grower  and  fattener.  A  cross,  however, 
between  the  Aylesbury  and  Pekin,  using  a  Pekin  di^ake  to  Ayles- 
bury ducks,  is  often  found  hardier.  It  is  important  to  obtain  the 
ducks  good  and  from  an  undoubted  source,  so  that  they  may  be 
pure.     Thej^  should  be  large,  well-grown,  and  early  hatched. 

Early  Breeding. — One  of  the  most  imj)ortant  points  in  connec- 
tion with  duck-keeping  is  securing  the  best  prices  by  having 
ducklings  placed  on  the  market  early  in  the  season.  In  order 
to  do  this  they  must  be  bred  early ;  but  with  many  duck-keepers 
the  difficulty  is  to  obtain  eggs  in  late  autumn  and  early  winter. 
If  ducks  or  other  fowls  are  allowed  to  breed  when  they  like,  if 
the  stock  ducks  are  themselves  late-hatched,  if  they  are  fed 
carelessly,  in  all  probability  eggs  will  not  begm  to  appear 
before  March,  when  it  is  altogether  too  late  to  hatch  spring  duck- 
lings; therefore  those  who  desire  to  be  successful  in  the  produc- 
tion of  ducklings  for  spring  marketing  should  proceed  to  work 
in  the  autumn.     That  the  business  is  a  profitable  one  cannot  be 


300  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

doubted.  It  is  estimated  that  about  £70,000  is  annually  paid 
to  the  duckers  of  the  Aylesbury  and  Leighton  Buzzard  districts 
for  ducklings.  Ducks  are  very  hardy,  and  will  thrive  almost 
anywhere  if  they  have  a  reasonable  share  of  attention ;  and  as 
good  prices  can  be  obtained  in  the  great  towns  of  Britain,  there 
is  a  large  margin  of  profit  to  the  producer. 

Methods  of  Duck  Farming. — ^Large  numbers  of  ducklings  can 
be  reared  on  a  small  area,  as  the  whole  period  from  the  time  of 
egg  production  to  killing  should  be  comprised  within  three 
months.  Moreover,  these  birds  can  be  raised  very  thickly,  and 
thus  there  is  rapid  overturn.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  1,000 
to  1 ,500  ducklings  to  be  reared  on  a  single  acre  of  land,  and  within 
a  period  of  six  to  seven  months.  The  chief  danger  under  con- 
ditions like  these  is  that  the  land  should  become  so  charged  with 
manure  that  there  is  not  time  for  exhaustion  of  the  ammonia 
before  another  season  comes  round.  We  believe  that,  to  some 
extent  at  any  rate,  the  fact  stated  explains  why  many  duckers 
in  the  Aylesbury  district  have  not  succeeded  to  the  same  extent 
as  was  the  case  formerly;  and,  for  reasons  which  will  be  after- 
wards explained,  the  land  occupied  during  one  season  by  duck- 
lings should  not  be  so  used  again  for  three  or  four  years.  In 
the  meantime  it  should  be  heavily  cropped.  I  have  no  desire 
to  discourage  small  poultry-keepers — indeed,  the  reverse — ^but 
it  must  be  pointed  out  that  there  are  limitations  imposed  by 
Nature  which  we  must  attempt  to  break  through.  Consequently 
duck-raisers  should  not  occupy  the  whole  of  their  land  in  any  one 
year,  but  be  able  to  move  on  to  fresh  ground  from  time  to  time. 
For  this  reason  small  holders  and  farmers  should  succeed  better 
than  cottagers. 

Supply  of  Eggs. — ^It  will  be  realized  that  under  such  intensive 
conditions  as  we  have  already  mentioned  the  keeping  of  stock 
birds  would  do  much  to  restrict  the  space  available  for  rearing, 
which  explains  why  as  a  rule  in  this  country  duck-raisers  do  not 
keep  breeding  stock.  In  the  United  States  the  plan  is  not  fol- 
lowed, for  Tipon  the  great  farms  met  with  in  that  coimtry  breeding 
stock  are  kept  and  the  ducklings  raised.  The  plan  here  recom- 
mended— ^namely,  of  securing  eggs  from  breeders — is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, as  there  is  less  danger  under  these  circumstances  of  en- 
feeble ment  of  the  stock  or  of  overcrowding  the  ducklings.  It  is 
to  be  remembered  that  stock  birds  must  have  liberty  and  water. 
When  we  say  they  must  have  liberty,  that  applies  more  to  the 
question  of  water  than  of  land.  The  system  of  buying  eggs  is 
almost  universal  throughout  the  ducking  districts,  and  that  plan 


THE  DUCK  INDUSTRY  301 

has  been  followed  also  by  Mr.  P.  Walsh,  of  Fleetwood,  to  whom 
references  are  made  more  fully  later  on.  Under  the  system 
referred  to,  the  breeders  secure  good  prices  for  then-  eggs,  and 
thus  the  business  is  profitable  to  them.  Unless  stock  have 
sufficient  exercise,  we  should  not  expect  them  to  produce 
eggs  with  strong  embryos,  which  is  the  most  important  point. 
Reliable  ducks'  eggs  command  good  prices.  In  May  2s.  per 
dozen  would  be  a  fair  price  for  ducks'  eggs,  but  in  December 
12s.  per  dozen  is  frequently  paid.  That  is  a  matter  of  supply 
and  demand,  though  the  value  of  a  duck's  egg  in  December  is 
also  measured  by  the  fact  that  the  possible  duckling  within  it 
may  be  worth  7s.  or  10s.  in  May,  whereas  one  hatched  in  April 
would  not  realize  more  than  a  third  or  a  quarter  that  sum. 
Contracts  for  eggs  are  often  made  at  3s.  to  3s.  6d.  per  dozen  for 
the  entire  season. 

Hatching  and  Rearing. — ^The  hatching  hens  are  accommodated 
in  outhouses  and  sheds,  and  often  150  hens  may  be  seen  at  work 
in  maternal  duties  at  one  time.  Every  day  they  are  fed  and  the 
nests  examined,  but  this  is  simple  compared  with  the  labour 
involved  at  the  end  of  four  weeks,  when  the  young  ducks  begin 
to  appear.  As  already  stated,  incubators  are  now  used  to  a 
considerable  extent.  Ducklings  have  one  special  characteristic, 
in  that  they  need  little  brooding,  so  that  the  progeny  of  half  a 
dozen  sitters  can  be  placed  imder  charge  of  one  hen,  and  proud 
she  will  be  of  her  large  brood.  From  the  very  first  the  feeding 
has  in  view  development  of  flesh  and  not  bone.  Consequently 
only  those  meals  which  are  strongest  in  flesh  and  fat  formers 
are  used.  For  the  first  few  days  hard-boiled  eggs  (infertiles), 
rice,  and  bread,  are  given,  after  which  barley-meal,  mixed  with 
scrap  or  tallow-cake,  grains,  and  toppings,  form  the  staple  diet. 
On  such  feeding  as  this  the  growth  is  simply  marvellous — they 
can  be  seen  to  grow.  Kept  in  batches  of  about  fifty,  they  are 
fed  with  the  greatest  regularity,  and  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  in  every  pen  is  placed  a  trough  of  the  famous  gravel  found 
in  the  Vale  of  Aylesbury,  for  which  almost  miraculous  powers 
are  claimed.  To  it  is  attributed  almost  all  the  merits  of  the 
Aylesbury  duck — quality  of  flesh,  rapidity  of  growth,  and  delicate 
pink  of  the  bill,  which  is  one  of  its  distinctive  marks.  The  birds 
appreciate  this  grit,  and  duckers  use  large  quantities  of  it.  Some 
of  the  ducklings  sent  to  market  have  never  known  what  it  is  to 
be  in  water,  but  as  a  rule  they  are  now  and  again  permitted  a 
bathe  or  a  swim.  The  pens  in  which  they  are  kept  are  none  too 
large,  but  there  is  reason  in  this,  and  fresh  straw  is  supplied 
every  day,  their  greatest  enemy  being  cramp,  to  which  they 


302  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

are  very  subject  if  exposed  to  cbaughts  or  the  place  be  too 
damp. 

The  skill  of  the  feeder  is  exemplified  by  the  rapidity  with  which 
he  can  have  the  ducklings  ready  for  market.  They  are  heavy 
eaters,  and  every  day  of  life  means  a  serious  addition  to  the  cost. 
Further,  the  earlier  they  are  ready,  the  more  certainty  of  securing 
the  best  market,  and  the  vacating  of  space  for  other  batches. 
The  majority  of  the  ducklings  sent  from  Aylesbury  are  seven  or 
eight  weeks  old,  but  it  is  jDossible  to  have  them  ready  at  six 
weeks.  They  must  be  killed  as  soon  as  they  are  ready,  and  not 
kept  a  day  longer  than  the  hour  when  they  are  ripe,  or  they  will 
go  rapidly  back.  Killing  and  plucking  are  carried  on  at  great 
pressure,  for  it  is  no  inicommon  thing  for  a  ton  of  ducklings  to 
be  despatched  from  this  district  in  a  single  day.  This  would 
represent  about  7,000  birds  per  month. 

Houses  and  Sheds. — The  arrangements  made  for  the  housing 
of  the  adult  ducks  must  necessarily  depend  upon  the  opportiniities 
of  the  breeder.  Where  space  is  limited,  and  there  is  small  fear 
of  injury  being  wrought  by  the  birds,  they  may  be  given  full 
liberty  and  allowed  to  wander  where  they  like.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  houses  can  be  scattered  about  in  the  most 
convenient  places.  A  duck  house  does  not  need  to  be  as  lofty 
as  one  for  chickens,  because  ducks  sleep  upon  the  ground.  For 
a  breeding  pen  of  thirteen  birds — that  is,  ten  ducks  and  three 
drakes,  which  may  be  all  kept  together — a  house  6  feet  by 
4  feet  6  inches  allows  plenty  of  space.  This  house  may  be  either 
gabled  or  a  lean-to,  and  it  should  be  thoroughl}^  well  ventilated; 
in  fact,  the  front  is  better  if  it  is  made  with  wire  netting,  so  that 
it  can  be  left  open.  Where  the  birds  must  be  kept  within  a 
measure  of  confinement,  a  house  should  be  placed  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  running  water  or  a  pond,  and  yards  enclosing  both 
water  and  land  can  be  arranged. 

A  mistake  is  frequently  made  in  placing  the  houses  too  near  the 
water,  and  a  great  amount  of  cramp  in  the  breeding  stock  results. 
The  house  should  be  upon  thoroughly  diy  soil — cky,  that  is, 
even  during  the  winter  or  wet  season — because  we  must  bear  in 
mind  that  although  ground  may  be  some  distance  from  the 
water,  yet  percolation  means  that,  unless  the  place  where  the 
house  is  located  is  considerably  above  the  level  of  the  stream,  it 
will  be  damp.  Around  the  house  should  be  an  enclosed  yard, 
which  may  be  made  of  2 -feet  wire  netting  or  of  low  hurdles.  The 
object  of  this  is  that  ducks,  if  they  have  the  opportunity,  will  lay 
anywhere  rather  than  in  then-  house,  and  frequently  on  the  water. 
That  can  be  prevented  by  keeping  them  within  the  enclosed 


THE  DUCK  INDUSTRY  305 

yard  until  10  or  11  a.m.,  by  which  time  nearly  every  bird  that 
is  going  to  lay  that  day  will  have  produced  her  egg.  Under  the 
conditions  named,  duck-breeding  is  of  the  simplest  character, 
because  the  birds  have  plenty  of  water  to  drink,  and  they  can  be 
fed  the  same  as  ordinary  poultry. 

Feeding. — ^The  treatment  of  ducks  when  mated  is  of  great  im- 
portance, for  all  preparations  will  be  useless  unless  there  is  a 
supply  of  eggs.  Food  given  must  be  good  and  plentiful,  but 
certainly  not  of  a  fattening  nature,  or  the  ovaries  will  become 
so  clogged  that  the  birds  will  be  unable  to  produce  eggs;  hence 
Indian  corn  should  not  on  any  account  be  used,  except  in  very 
small  quantities,  because  of  its  fattening  quality.  The  staple 
food  should  be  barley-meal,  mixed  with  about  half  its  bulk  of 
thirds  or  pollard  if  the  barley-meal  be  good  and  floury;  but  if  it 
be  of  commoner  quality,  then  so  much  of  the  thirds  need  not  be 
used.  Butcher's  offal,  liver,  and  scraps,  are  all  good,  if  well 
boiled,  chopped  fine,  and  mixed  with  the  meal.  But  where  these 
are  not  available,  or  in  too  limited  quantities,  there  is  nothing 
better  than  tallow  greaves,  or  scrap-cake,  as  it  is  called  in  some 
places,  for  it  is  rich  in  the  elements  required.  It  should  be  broken 
up  and  boiled  or  simmered  for  a  couple  of  hours  until  it  is  quite 
soft,  when  it  and  the  liquor  in  which  it  has  been  boiled  should 
be  mixed  with  the  meal.  Another  excellent  plan  is  to  make  a 
contract  with  hotels  for  taking  their  waste  scraps,  which  can 
generally  be  done  on  satisfactory  terms.  Whatever  is  used  in 
this  way  is  better  boiled,  and  then  mixed  with  the  meal.  It  is 
important,  however,  to  warn  against  use  of  diseased  meat,  which 
ought  never  to  be  employed.  Some  duck  raisers  give  boiled 
horse-flesh  to  their  birds,  and  if  sound  nothing  can  be  better; 
but  so  many  horses  obtained  in  this  way  are  diseased  that  it  is 
necessary  to  utter  a  warning  against  their  use.  Of  course,  meat 
given  must  not  be  too  fatty.  If  fed  judiciously,  meat  will  give 
that  necessary  stimulus  to  the  egg  organs  that  is  needed  in  winter, 
and  yields  elements  required  for  a  constant  supply  of  eggs.  The 
meal  should  be  well  and  thoroughly  mixed,  adding  as  much 
boilmg  water  as  is  requu'ed  to  make  it  into  a  crumbly  mass,  for 
on  no  consideration  must  it  be  given  sloppy.  It  is  better  to  feed 
from  troughs,  as  this  prevents  waste  of  food,  and  what  is  left 
can  be  removed  when  the  birds  are  satisfied.  Stock  ducks  ought 
to  be  fed  twice  a  day — first,  as  early  as  possible  in  the  morning, 
and,  second,  about  an  hour  before  they  retire  for  the  evening; 
the  former  should  always  be  as  soon  after  daylight  as  can  be.  It 
is  an  excellent  plan  to  throw  a  handful  or  two  of  oats  into  the 
water  in  which  the  birds  swim  or  bathe  during  the  day. 

20 


30G 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


The  "  Walsh"  System. — ^VVhat  has  been  stated  above  applies  to 
the  methods  usually  adopted  where  operations  are  on  a  modest 
scale,  in  the  hands  of  individual  producers.  It  now  remains  to 
describe  a  large  duck  farm  upon  which  the  methods  are  entirely 
different.  It  has  been  in  operation  for  more  than  twenty  years, 
entirely  upon  utility  lines,  without  any  contributory  returns  in 
the  shape  of  sale  of  stock,  eggs  for  hatching,  etc.  The  whole 
business  is  in  the  hatching  and  raising  of  ducklings  for  market. 
This  is  owned  by  a  Lancashire  farmer,  Mr.  Peter  Walsh,  and  is 
situated  near  Fleetwood.  The  soil  is  a  clay  loam,  slightly  undu- 
lating, and  windswept,  as  it  is  within  sight  of  the  Irish  Sea.  As 
may  be  expected  under  such  conditions,  very  early  ducklings 
are  not  obtained,  nor  birds  of  the  highest  quality.  The  limita- 
tions of  the  environment  are  fully  realized. 


Fig.  55. — Double  Rearing  House  for  Ducklings. 


This  farm  consists  of  25  acres,  on  which,  as  no  breeding  stock 
are  kept  and  the  rearing  is  intensive,  the  same  ground  is  not 
used  in  successive  years.  The  farm  buildings  are  substantial, 
providing  accommodation  for  offices,  incubator  rooms,  stores, 
plucking  shed,  and  chilling-rooms.  Everything  is  of  a  rigidly 
practical  nature,  plain,  simple,  and  inexpensive,  almost  to  a 
fault.  In  fact,  cheapness  is  evident  everywhere,  save  in  the 
incubators  and  chilling  plant.  Not  a  penny  is  spent  that  can  be 
avoided. 

No  breeding  stock  are  kept.  Thus  the  land  is  available  en- 
tirely for  rearing.  The  eggs  purchased  number  about  60,000 
per  annum,  derived  from  many  sources  and  districts.  Such 
method  has  many  disadvantages,  in  that  supplies  are  often  un- 
reliable and  uncertain,  and  there  can  be  no  control  over  the  class 
of  bird  from  which  eggs  are  obtained,  which   means  inferior 


THE  DUCK  INDUSTRY  307 

quality,  as  the  district  does  not  produce  more  than  a  moiety  of 
eggs  required.  On  the  other  hand,  the  maintenance  of  800 
breeding  ducks  is  avoided,  which  would  otherwise  be  requii'ed, 
and  the  risks  of  tainted  ground  obviated,  as  is  the  saving  of 
labour.  It  is  a  question  of  economics,  and  in  this  case  the 
balance  is  thought  to  be  on  the  side  of  the  present  system. 

Methods  of  Rearing. — The  hatching  is  entirely  artificial.  The 
machines,  of  which  eighty  are  in  use,  are  accommodated  in  two 
large  rooms,  with  a  total  capacity  of  14,000  eggs.  These  are  closely 
packed  together  in  rows,  standing  upon  wide  benches  with  tray 
rests  in  front  and  joassages  between.  Great  attention  has  been  paid 
to  ventilation  by  sliding  shutters  below  the  level  of  the  machines 
and  ventilators  in  the  roof.  The  atmosphere  is  kept  moist  by 
use  of  wet  sand,  and  the  eggs  are  damped  at  each  time  of 
turning,  which  is  carried  out  twice  a  day.  One  very  interesting 
observation  is  that  low  fertility  and  high  vitality  are  usually 
associated. 

The  methods  of  rearing  are  such  as  I  have  not  seen  elsewhere. 
Along  one  side  of  the  incubator-room  is  a  broad  bench,  upon 
which  are  placed  L-shaped  boards  which  fit  together,  forming 
sections  about  30  inches  long  by  12  inches  wide  and  11  inches 
deep.  When  dried  off  in  the  incubators,  the  young  ducklings 
are  placed  in  these,  about  fifty  to  each  compartment,  where  they 
remain  for  seven  da^'s.  No  heat  is  applied,  but  the  room  is 
always  maintained  at  a  comfortable  temperature  bj^  the  incu- 
bator lamps.  The  bench  is  covered  with  peat-moss  litter  and 
cleaned  regularly.     For  feeding  the  section  boards  are  removed. 

AVhen  the  birds  are  a  week  old  they  are  transferred  outside, 
and  placed  in  rough  boxes  or  packing-cases  laid  upon  their  sides 
(Fig.  56) .  Four  of  these  are  used,  grouped  with  the  open  tops  to 
form  an  uncovered  square  in  the  centre,  from  which  the  ducklings 
cannot  escape  except  by  going  into  the  cases.  As  these  packing- 
cases  are  bought  very  cheaply,  the  cost  of  equipment  is  small. 
No  heat  is  applied,  and  the  object  is  to  harden  them  off  without 
undue  exposure.  From  whichever  quarter  wind  may  blow  they 
are  perfectly  sheltered.  Here  they  remain  for  seven  days  more, 
when  transference  again  takes  place  to  open  runs,  formed  by 
putting  down  2 -foot  wire  netting.  In  these  runs  large  packing- 
cases  are  used  as  houses,  two  or  three  in  accordance  with  the  size 
of  the  birds.  Here  they  remain  until  ready  for  killing — that  is, 
about  six  or  seven  weeks.  Lamps,  suspended  on  poles,  are  kept 
burning  in  the  runs  all  night,  as  it  is  found  the  birds  are  much 
quieter  than  if  entirely  in  the  dark. 

The  features  of  this  plant,  so  far  as  rearing  is  concerned,  are  its 


308  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

simplicit}',  its  low  cost  for  equipment,  and  mobility.     The  danger 
of  tainted  runs  by  use  of  fixed  houses  is  entirely  avoided. 

Belgian  Systems. — ^Natural  conditions  in  several  provinces  of 
Belgium  are  responsible  for  the  wide  distribution  of  ducks, 
though  there  are  sections  not  so  favourable  as  are  others.  Well- 
watered  plains  and  valleys  offer  excellent  facilities  for  duck- 


FiG.  56. — Rearing  Boxes  for  Ducklings. 

breeding,  and  the  great  rivers,  with  their  contributory  streams, 
afford  favourable  oj^portunities  in  this  direction.  In  two  dis- 
tricts dealt  with  below  the  industry  is  large  and  highly  specialized. 
Throughout  the  country  ducks  are  kept  by  a  great  number  of 
farmers,  few  in  number,  it  is  true,  but  large  in  the  aggregate. 
There  is  a  very  general  idea  that  ducks  help  to  keep  the  land 
sweet.     Upon  what  that  opinion  is  based  I  do  not  know,  but  it 


THE  DUCK  INDUSTRY  309 

is  undoubtedly  true  that  duck  manure  is  very  valuable  and 
fosters  the  growth  of  the  finer  grasses.  Evidence  of  such  result 
has  been  found  in  our  own  land.  Around  Ghent  large  numbers 
of  ducks  are  to  be  seen,  though  that  is  not  one  of  the  places 
referred  to.  Throughout  Flanders  and  Hainault  ducks  are  to  be 
found  everywhere,  and  the  same  can  be  said  as  to  other  districts 
generally.  The  demand  for  these  birds  is  very  large,  as  also  for 
their  eggs,  which  are  thought  to  have  the  flavour  of  those  of  wild 
birds,  and  are  specially  valuable  for  cooking  purposes.  The 
system  adopted,  with,  one  exception,  has  been  followed  for  cen- 
turies, varjang  considerably  from  those  met  with  in  England. 


Fig.  57. — Duck  Houses  at  Landsmeer. 


Huttegem  and  District. — One  of  the  most  important  centres 
for  this  industry  is  in  the  valley  of  the  Escaut,  near  the  city  of 
Audenarde,  in  East  Flanders.  On  both  sides  of  the  river  above 
Audenarde  the  valley  is  flat  and  broad,  flanked  by  hills  of  a  fair 
elevation,  consisting  of  water-meadows,  which  are  flooded  in 
the  autumn,  remaining  under  water  until  the  end  of  February, 
when  they  are  drained.  These  meadows,  which  extend  several 
miles  from  the  city  named,  beyond  the  village  of  Huttegem,  are 
communal  property,  and  upon  these  ducklings  are  raised  in  large 
numbers.  Here  they  find  an  abundance  of  rich  natural  food, 
and  in  return  greatly  improve  the  land  by  their  manure.     It  is 


310  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

no  uncommon  sight  during  March  and  April  to  .see  a  hundred 
thousand  ducklings  on  the  meadows.  In  April  the  birds  are 
removed  and  the  land  left  for  hay.  When  that  crop  is  cut  the 
meadows  are  used  for  cattle  and  chickens.  When  flooded,  the 
valley  is  one  vast  lake,  nearly  two  miles  in  width.  The  road 
and  dwellings  by  Bevere,  and  on  to  Huttegem,  are  just  above 
the  water-line.  It  is  in  these  dwellings  where  the  duck-breeders 
live.  Such  is  the  scene  of  a  remarkable  industry.  Cultivation 
of  the  fields  other  than  the  water-meadows  is  good;  the  houses, 
however,  are  primitive  and  not  of  a  high  order  of  comfort. 

A  Spartan  Plan. — As  a  rule,  breeding  ducks  are  accommodated 
in  one  of  the  ordinary  farm  ])uildings,  which  are  usually  spacious, 
but  cannot  be  said  to  conform  to  our  ideas  of  light,  ventilation, 
or  cleanliness.  The  ducks  wander  all  over  the  meadows  in 
search  of  food,  but  are  not  allowed  out  until  after  they  have  laid. 
They  return  in  the  evening  to  their  own  quarters,  when  they  are 
shut  up  for  the  night.  Hens  are  almost  entirely  used  for  hatch- 
ing, and  a  local  breed  called  the  Huttegem  is  kept  for  the  pur- 
pose. This  is  a  large-bodied  fowl,  coming  into  lay  very  early, 
and,  in  fact,  becoming  broody  after  producing  seven  or  eight 
eggs.  The  maternal  instinct  is  so  strong  that  the  hens  of  this 
breed  will  sit  for  three  months  without  a  break,  contentedly 
taking  three  nests  of  eggs  in  succession.  When  the  ducklings  are 
hatched,  they  are  kept  very  warm  for  a  couple  of  days,  frequently 
in  the  dwelling-room,  by  the  side  of  the  fireplace,  after  which  they 
are  transferred  to  coops  made  of  straw.  These  coops  are  placed 
in  the  farmyard  for  a  fcAV  days,  after  which  they  are  removed  to 
the  open.  The  reason  for  the  use  of  straw  is  that  the  coop  can 
be  easily  moved,  and  when  it  becomes  dirty  is  burnt  to  destroy 
all  parasitic  life.  At  first  the  hens  have  cords  tied  to  the  legs 
staked  in  front  of  the  coops.  At  a  later  stage  they  are  put  out  on 
the  meadows,  where  natural  food  is  abundant. 

Hardihood  characterizes  the  Huttegem  duck,  necessitated  by 
the  method  followed.  Young  birds  for  breeding  are  employed 
to  secure  early  eggs,  as  hatching  commences  in  August,  so  as  to 
have  ducklings  ready  for  January,  when  sale  commences.  The 
season  is  a  short  one,  ending  in  April,  when  the  birds  are  removed 
from  the  meadows.  It  is  "  a  stolen  harvest."  Rearing  upon  the 
Continent  of  Europe  during  the  winter  is  more  difficult  than  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  as  the  weather  is  less  favourable.  AVhat- 
ever  it  may  be,  the  ducklings  have  to  bear  it;  there  is  no  cod- 
dling; if  too  weak  they  die.  On  one  occasion  I  visited  the 
Audenarde  district  early  in  February,  when  the  watercourses 
were  frozen  and  the  ground  covered  with  snow.     Even  under 


THE  DUCK  INDUSTRY  313 

those  conditions  the  ducklings  were  placed  out  in  the  open  and 
allowed  to  go  into  the  water,  access  to  which  was  given  by 
breaking  the  ice.  The  English  plan  has  been  to  keep  the  young 
birds  from  swimming  in  water  which  is  very  cold,  as  that  is 
thought  to  retard  growth  and  induce  cramp,  but  the  Flemish 
peasants  do  not  fear  any  such  consequences. 

Feeding  the  Ducklings. — ^Whilst  worms  and  plants  are  chiefly 
depended  upon,  these  are  not  enough  to  secure  rapidity  of  growth, 
and  food  supplied  is  liberal.  For  the  first  three  or  four  days  a 
mixture  of  hard-boiled  eggs,  chopped  fine,  buckwheat -meal,  and 
Indian  meal,  and  made  into  a  paste,  is  fed  upon  sacks,  together 
with  worms,  after  which  two  or  three  feeds  a  day  are  given  of 
either  steeped  buckwheat  or  of  buckwheat -meal  mixed  with 
maizemeal,  the  birds  getting  what  natural  food  they  can  on  the 
meadows.  On  this  diet  they  grow  well  and  rapidly,  but,  as 
already  stated,  do  not  make  the  size  attained  by  our  Aylesburys 
in  the  same  time.  There  is  no  fattening  in  this  section  of 
Flanders.  When  the  ducklings  are  about  six  weeks  old  they  are 
sold  to  the  professional  duck  feeders  at  Lebbeke  and  Merchtem, 
who  finish  the  work.  One  point  to  be  noted,  however,  is  that 
the  water-meadows  are  communal  land,  and  that  the  flooding 
and  draining  are  regulated  by  local  authorities,  the  peasants 
having  feeding  rights  thereon.  It  is  stated  that  nearly  200,000 
ducklings  are  raised  annually  in  the  district,  but  that  they  are 
decreasing  somewhat. 

Laplaigne. — ^The  other  section  of  Belgium  where  duck-raising 
is  carried  out  on  industrial  lines  is  at  Laplaigne,  in  the  pro^^nce 
of  Hainault,  on  the  French  border,  and,  like  Audenarde,  on  the 
Escaut  River.  Here  is  a  great  plain,  on  one  side  of  which  is 
Fontenoy,  famous  as  the  scene  of  an  important  battle  in  1745 
when  the  English  and  their  allies  were  defeated  by  the  Frenc 
under  Marshal  Saxe.  It  is  low-lying  land,  divided  by  water- 
courses, and  in  some  cases  below  the  level  of  the  river.  A  con- 
siderable portion  consists  of  water-meadows,  as  at  Huttegem, 
under  communal  control,  and  flooded  every  j^ear.  Here  is  bred 
a  small  duck  of  somewhat  uncertain  type,  but  very  rapid  in 
growth,  producing  fine  and  abundant  flesh,  which  is  greatly  in 
demand  at  Brussels,  Lille,  etc.  Upwards  of  100,000  are  pro- 
duced anniuiUy  in  the  commune  of  Laplaigne,  which  can  be  fully 
credited,  for  ducklings  seem  to  be  everywhere,  both  in  large  and 
small  flocks.  One  breeder  raises  annually  about  10,000  birds. 
A  distinctive  difference  between  the  Huttegem  and  Laplaigne 
ducklings  is  that  the  latter  are  reared  practically  all  the  year 


314  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

round.     The  birds  are  ready  for  killing  in  seven  wecks.'by  which 
time  they  weigh  3  to  3|  pounds. 

Methods  at  Laplaigne. — In  many  respects  the  system  adopted 
resembles  that  already  described  in  connection  with  Huttegem, 
and  it  is^  therefore,  not  necessarj^  to  describe  it  in  detail.  But 
there  are  differences  of  importance.  In  the  first  place,  incubators 
are  here  emploj^ed  almost  entirely,  made  necessarj^  by  the  fact 
that  the  ordinary  fowls  of  the  district  are  Black  Braekels,  which 
would  be  useless  as  sitters,  equally  because  they  are  small  in  size 
of  body  and  unreliable.  The  results  are  said  to  be  very  satis- 
factory, and  the  introduction  of  these  appliances  has  led  to  a 
great  extension  of  the  industry.  A  second  difference  is  that 
during  the  first  fortnight  the  hen  and  her  brood  are  enclosed 
during  the  day  within  hurdles,  which  are  placed  by  the  side  of, 
and  cross,  the  watercourses,  where  they  have  access  to  the  small 
stream,  on  the  banks  of  which  a  large  amount  of  natural  food  is 
obtained.  After  that  period  they  are  given  full  liberty.  The 
same  system  is  adoj)ted  of  helping  them  to  find  worms,  as  already 
mentioned.  Another  method  is  that  no  artificial  heat  is  pro- 
vided for  the  dvicklings,  but  they  are  very  fond  of  sleeping  during 
the  day  on  beds  of  fresh  stable  manure  placed  in  convenient 
positions,  whence  they  obtain  a  considerable  amount  of  natural 
warmth.  Sheds  made  with  hurdles  and  straw  are  distributed, 
into  which  the  ducklings  can  go  when  disposed  to  obtain  shelter, 
and  the  older  ducklings  are  permitted  to  wander  among  the  trees, 
which  are  found  in  clumps  here  and  there. 

Feeding  and  Fattening. — ^As  distinct  from  what  has  already 
been  stated  as  to  Audenarde,  the  work  is  completed  at  Laplaigne 
by  fattening  and  killing  the  ducklings.  The  method  of  feeding 
generally  followed  is  that  the  food  supplied  consists  of  crushed 
wheat  or  buckwheat-meal,  and  mixed  with  cooked  potatoes,  to 
which  a  little  meat-meal  is  added.  This  mixture  is  prepared 
with  water  into  a  paste.  Probably  the  reason  whj^  meat-meal  is 
added  arises  from  the  acknowledged  fact  that,  as  a  consequence 
of  the  large  number  of  ducklings  bred  and  kept  on  the  meadows 
practically  all  the  year  round,  -worms  are  becoming  scarce,  as 
might  be  expected,  for  the  land  does  not  appear  to  be  so  rich  as 
at  Huttegem.  What  effect  a  continued  deficiency  of  worms  will 
have,  and  how  far  it  will  increase  the  cost  of  production,  remains 
to  be  seen.  That  meat  will  form  a  good  substitute  cannot  be 
doubted.  The  food  named  above  is  continued  all  the  time, 
except  that  during  the  last  two  weeks,  when  the  birds  are  being 
fed  off,  steeped  buckwheat  forms  part  of  the  diet,  as  that  is  found 


PLATE  XV. 


1 

1 

4 

Enclosure  for  Young  Ducks  at  Laplaigne. 


THE  DUCK  INDUSTRY  317 

to  give  firmness  to  the  flesh.  When  this  stage  is  reached  the  duck- 
lings are  kept  in  open-fronted  sheds  with  outer  yards,  so  that 
they  do  not  obtain  much  exercise,  and  as  a  consequence  increase 
rapidly  in  weight. 

American  Duck  Farms. — In  America  the  methods  adopted 
have  been  on  totally  different  lines,  in  that  production  has 
mainly  been  on  great  plants,  many  of  which  have  been  very  suc- 
cessful. A  considerable  number  of  these  duck  farms  are  to  be 
found  in  the  States  of  New  York,  especially  on  Long  Island, 
Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania.  It  is  estimated 
that  from  the  section  of  Massachusetts  around  South  Easton  and 
Wrentham  half  a  million  ducklings  are  marketed  annually. 
Other  differences  between  Eiu'opean  and  American  methods 
are — (1)  That  in  the  latter  the  buildings  are  substantial  and  have 
fixed  yards.  That  is  a  saving  in  labour,  and  probably  in  cost  of 
equipment,  but  involves  risks  of  tainted  soil.  In  fact,  one  large 
duck  breeder  said  to  me  that  if  he  were  commencing  again  he 
would  have  movable  houses,  as  there  was  a  steadily  increasing 
tendency  after  some  years  to  loss  of  virility.  (2)  That  as  a 
general  rule  the  breeding  stock  are  kept  upon  these  duck  farms, 
which  system,  whilst  possessing  many  advantages,  yet  in  the 
absence  of  special  precautions  tends  to  degeneracy,  more  es- 
pecially where  birds  are  reared  and  maintained  within  small 
enclosures.  (3)  That  what  is  known  as  the  "  drj^  "  system  is 
adopted  in  many  cases,  by  which  is  meant  the  breeders  are  not 
provided  with  their  natural  element — ^water — to  swim  in. 
(4)  That  artificial  methods  of  hatching  are  used  for  breeding 
stock  as  well  as  those  birds  which  are  to  be  killed. 

Duck  Houses. — ^Upon  one  plant — that  of  Mr.  James  Rankin, 
at  South  Easton,  Massachusetts — the  houses  for  breeding  ducks 
are  216  feet  long  by  20  feet  deep.  Each  compartment  is  20  feet 
by  10  feet,  and  accommodates  twenty-five  birds,  four  drakes  to 
twenty-one  ducks.  The  yards  in  front  are  100  feet  long  by 
10  feet  wide.  These  runs  provide  no  water  for  swimming,  and 
the  ground  is  swept  over  every  week,  whilst  in  the  autuimi,  when 
the  breeding  season  is  over,  they  are  planted  with  rye  grass  to 
sweeten.  The  breeding  house  on  the  farm  of  Weber  Brothers,  at 
Wrentham,  Massachusetts,  is  260  feet  by  20  feet,  and  similarly  ar- 
ranged. In  each  case  the  divisions  are  low  removable  boards  which 
can  be  easily  stepped  over.  On  both  plants  several  long  houses  are 
provided  for  the  growing  stock.  Many  of  these  are  heated  on  the 
pipe  system,  and  the  others  are  used  when  the  birds  no  longer 
require  artificial  heat.     It  is  significant,  however,  to  find  that 


318  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

the  Weber  Brothers  believe  that  better  results  would  be  obtained 
if  the  breeding  stock  had  water  in  which  to  swim,  which  they  are 
endeavouring  to  secure;  and  also,  at  the  time  of  my  visit,  that, 
in  spite  of  all  their  efforts  to  sweeten  the  land  by  planting,  it  was 
showing  signs  of  becoming  tainted. 

Feeding  and  Killing. — The  food  given  varies  considerably  from 
what  is  used  in  England.  On  one  plant,  from  the  first,  the 
food  consists  of  four  parts  wheat  bran,  one  part  Indian  meal, 
with  enough  of  low-grade  flour  to  make  the  mass  crumbly  but 
not  pasty;  and,  for  the  first  feed,  about  5  per  cent,  of  sharp  grit, 
but  after  that  2  per  cent,  is  regarded  as  sufficient.  As  the  birds 
grow  older  the  size  of  the  grit  is  increased.  After  the  third  day 
about  5  per  cent,  of  fine  beef  scrap  is  added,  soaking  it  a  little 
before  mixing,  and  when  about  a  week  old  green  rye  is  given  if 
available,  or  finely  chopped  cabbage  or  lettuce.  When  stale 
baker's  bread  can  be  obtained,  it  is  used  instead  of  the  bran. 
As  the  birds  reach  a  fortnight  old  more  Indian  meal  is  added, 
making  the  proportions  three  parts  bran  to  one  part  of  the 
Indian  meal,  and  when  the  birds  are  fattening  the  mixture 
consists  of  two  parts  of  Indian  meal,  one  part  of  wheat  bran,  one 
part  of  low-grade  flour,  10  per  cent,  of  beef  scrap,  10  per  cent,  of 
green  food,  and  3  per  cent,  of  grit,  proportions  by  measure. 

Feeding  and  Fattening  in  Bucks. — ^Reverting  to  English 
methods,  it  will  be  realized  that  a  most  important  part  of  the 
work  is  the  feeding  and  fattening  of  the  chicklings.  In  the 
Aylesburj^  district  feeding  varies  considerably  in  accordance 
with  individual  ideas,  and  also  with  what  food  is  available. 
Many  breeders  use  hard-boiled  eggs  chopped  fine  and  mixed 
with  boiled  rice,  though  some  give  toast  soaked  in  water.  After 
three  days  to  a  week  of  this  feeding,  the  birds  are  put  upon 
Burmah  rice  (carefully  simmered)  and  toppings  (which  is  the 
local  name  for  fine  sharps  or  middlings),  or  upon  barley-meal  and 
toppings,  a  variety  being  given  in  order  to  stimulate  the  appe- 
tite. The  manner  of  treatment  described  is  continued  until  the 
ducklings  are  five  weeks  old,  by  which  time  they  should  have 
grown  to  a  large  size.  Now  a  different  plan  must  be  adopted, 
for  the  frame  thus  built  up  must  be  covered  with  the  flesh,  and 
feeding  should  be  to  that  end.  The  ducklings  are  divided  into 
flocks  of  about  twenty  each,  as  near  as  may  be  alike  in  age  and 
size.  The  best  manner  is  to  feed  the  birds  from  long  wooden  or 
metal  troughs,  of  which  there  should  be  a  sufiicient  number  to 
allow  every  duck  to  find  a  place.  The  quantity  of  food  can  only 
be  gauged  by  the  appetites  of  the  ducklings,  and  the  attendant 


THE  DUCK  INDUSTRY  321 

will  soon  find  out  how  much  is  necessary  without  allowing  any 
waste.  It  is  a  great  deal  better  to  be  rather  short  than  permit 
them  to  overeat.  No  water  must  be  supplied  until  they  have 
eaten,  and  then  only  in  small  quantities ;  and  they  should  not 
be  allowed  to  swim  until  a  day  or  so  before  they  are  to  be  killed, 
when  a  bath  will  clean  their  plumage. 

In  the  Aylesbury  district  the  food  supplied  during  the  final 
three  weeks  is  of  a  fattening  nature,  and  large  quantities  of 
greaves  or  scrap-cake  are  used  for  this  purpose.  Whilst  there 
should  be  variety  in  the  food,  so  as  to  tempt  the  appetite,  it  is 
believed  that  rice  properly  prepared  is  the  finest  of  all  for  this 
purpose,  as  it  is  cooling  to  the  blood,  stimulates  the  appetite, 
lays  on  flesh,  and  is  easy  of  digestion.  The  best  rice  for  feeding 
is  the  coarse  kind  with  its  husks,  called  in  some  places  "  paddy  " 
rice.  It  can  often  be  purchased  at  8s.  to  10s.  per  hundredweight 
or  less,  and  at  that  price  is  a  cheap  food  for  fattening.  The 
method  of  preparation  is  important,  as  it  must  never  be  given 
uncooked,  and  can  easily  be  spoiled  in  the  preparation.  If  the 
proportion  of  1  quart  of  rice  be  taken,  3  quarts  of  water  should 
be  added,  and  I  pound  of  broken  greaves,  with  a  little  seasoning 
powder.  The  whole  should  then  be  placed  in  a  vessel,  and 
allowed  to  simmer  (not  boil)  until  the  rice  has  swollen  and  ab- 
sorbed all  the  water,  which  it  will  do  in  two  or  three  hours.  The 
rice  should  then  be  broken  up,  and  given  to  the  birds  when  it 
has  cooled  down  somewhat.  For  variation,  Indian  meal  mixed 
with  thirds  or  pollard  may  be  used.  In  that  case  the  greaves 
or  meat-scraps  should  be  boiled,  and  then,  with  its  liquor,  mixed 
in  the  meal,  all  making  a  crumbly,  friable  mass.  Too  often  the 
importance  of  green  food  during  the  process  of  fattening  is  for- 
gotten, but  a  supply  of  such  as  may  be  available  should  be 
given  every  day.  Nettles,  boiled  and  mixed  with  the  food,  are 
largely  used.  Fresh  lettuces  are  also  good,  but  they  are  not  to 
be  obtained  at  some  periods  of  the  year,  and  then  cabbage  should 
be  substituted.  Green  food  is  cooling  to  the  blood,  and  tends 
to  keep  the  birds  healthy.  Another  most  important  matter  is 
that  of  supplying  grit,  for  without  it  the  ducklings  will  be  unable 
to  digest  their  food  properly.  The  quantity  they  will  consume  is 
proof  of  its  value,  and  a  boxful  should  always  be  within  their  reach. 

Ducklings  undergoing  the  process  of  fattening  should  not  be 
allowed  to  swim  in  water,  but,  as  we  have  already  said,  they 
must  have  water  to  di'ink.  A  further  point  to  be  observed  is 
that  ducklings  during  the  fattening  stage  should  not  be  disturbed 
or  frightened,  and  even  the  presence  of  strangers  will  retard 
growth.     It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  system 

21 


'322  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

here  described  is  only  suitable  for  birds  intended  to  be  killed  at 
an  early  age.  Where  breeding  stock  is  to  be  raised,  the  system 
adopted  should  not  tend  to  force  growth,  as  this  would  do  harm, 
and  the  food  supplied  should  be  throughout  the  whole  period 
similar  to  that  given  during  the  early  stages,  and  after  the  first 
two  or  three  weeks — except  the  weather  is  verj^  cold — it  is  better 
to  allow  the  ducklings  access  to  water,  so  that  they  may  SAvim. 
It  will  be  found  that  they  will  be  longer  in  reaching  maturity, 
but  their  vigour  of  body  will  be  verj^  much  greater. 

Killing. — ^Ducklings  should  be  starved  for  twenty-four  hours, 
and  are  killed  by  breaking  the  neck,''as  in  the  case  of  chickens. 
A  barrel  should  be  provided  with  slots  cut  in  the  top,  in  which 
one  leg  is  placed,  to  allow  the  bird  to  hang  head  downwards  for 
two  or  three  minutes,  so  that  the  blood  may  drain  well  from  the 
body.  Then  they  are  plucked  comj)letely,  except  upon  the 
wings  and  head  and  2  inches  down  the  neck.  The  wings  are 
turned,  and  the  birds  laid  breasts  upwards  upon  a  flat  board 
about  15  inches  wide,  the  heads  hanging  over  the  side.  As  soon 
as  half  a  dozen  are  ready,  another  board  is  laid  on  top  and  heavily 
weighted.  They  should  be  allowed  to  thoroughl}^  cool,  and  are 
packed  in  baskets  holding  a  dozen,  and  each  lot  should  be  even. 
Packing  ducks  whilst  w^arm  is  a  fatal  mistake,  often  causing  them 
to  reach  the  market  in  a  green  state. 

Cost  of  Raising  Ducklings. — ^The  cost  of  feeding  ducklings,  as 
we  have  already  mentioned,  is  an  important  item,  and  hence  the 
importance  of  early  maturity  and  of  marketing  during  the 
duckling  stage,  for  profit  depends  upon  whether  that  is  accom- 
plished. Taking  into  account  cost  of  egg,  of  incubation,  and  of 
feeding,  a  duckling  at  nine  weeks  cannot  be  produced  under 
Is.  6d.  to  2s.  if  the  labour  is  undertaken  by  the  breeder,  and  to 
do  so  requires  economy  in  feeding  and  management.  Where 
labour  has  to  be  paid  for,  and  interest  paid  on  equipment  of  plant, 
4d.  to  6d.  more  must  be  added,  even  where  the  operations  are 
upon  an  extensive  scale.  On  this  scale  a  duck  at  fifteen  weeks 
will  have  cost  Is.  beyond  the  sum  named,  and  will  be  of  less 
value  than  it  was  as  a  duckling.  Of  course,  where  less  intensive 
methods  are  adopted  the  expense  can  bo  minimized;  but  the 
returns  will  be  reduced  to  an  equal  extent.  The  plan  we  have 
described  will  only  be  profitable  for  the  production  of  ducklings 
early  in  the  season,  leaving  a  large  margin  under  proper  nuinage- 
ment,  where  the  conditions  arc  favourable  and  the  markets 
satisfactory.  Feathers  enter  largely  into  the  question  of  profit, 
but  these  are  dealt  with  in  a  later  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


GOOSE  FARMING 


The  branch  of  poultry  husbandry  which  ha«  alone  cleclmed 
durmg  recent  years  is  that  of  goose-breeding.  In  all  others 
great  advances  have  been  made.  What  is  here  stated  is  not 
restricted  to  any  one  country,  but  is  almost  universal — at  any 
rate,  wherever  progressive  farm  conditions  prevail,  even  to  a 
lesser  extent.  The  reasons  for  the  decline  referred  to  are  given 
below.  So  far  as  the  United  Kingdom  is  concerned,  the  following 
.figures,  which  are  all  we  have  available,  show  the  comparative 
statistics  relating  to  the  goose  for  1885  and  1908  in  Great  Britain, 
and  for  1885  and  1912  in  Ireland. 


1SS5. 

1908. 

England 

Wales        

Scotland 

Ireland  (1885,  1912) 

Totals    .. 

615,724 

234,146 

35,440 

2,133,609 

494,000 

192,000 

26,000 

1,731,934 

3,018,919 

2,443,934 

These  are  inclusive  of  old  and  young  birds,  and  do  not,  there- 
fore, represent  the  breeding  stock.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore, 
that  the  reductions  in  Britain  are  as  follows:  England,  1967  per 
cent.;  Wales,  18  per  cent.;  Scotland,  26'63  per  cent.;  Ireland, 
12-09  per  cent.  The  same  tendency  is  evident  in  other  lands, 
even  in  Germany,  where  the  eating  of  goose  flesh  in  greater  than 
in  any  other  country. 

Reasons  for  Decline. — Save  in  those  countries  where  the  land 
is  mainly  open  and  largely  rough  pasture,  fewer  geese  are  kept 
than  was  formerly  the  case.  During  my  observations  throughout 
Germany,  almost  everywhere  that  fa-t  was  recorded.  The 
supply  is  chiefly  Russian,  from  seven  to  nine  million  live  geese 
323 


324  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

being  imported  annually.  As  cultivation  increases,  geese  decline. 
Such  was  true  in  France,  in  Denmark,  and  in  Northern  Italy,  as 
it  has  been  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  With  enclosures  the 
IH'ofitable  growing  of  these  birds  is  lessened.  In  days  gone  by 
they  were  bred  and  reared  on  common  lands,  where  they  found 
the  major  part  of  their  food  at  no  cost  to  the  ownei-s.  That 
there  was  great  benefit  thus  derived  cannot  be  doubted.  Un- 
fortunately, over  large  areas,  as  has  been  succinctly  expressed, 
the  common  was  stolen  from  the  goose,  which  is  more  serious  in 
its  idtimate  effect  than  stealing  the  goose  from  the  common. 
That,  however,  is  not  all.  Wherever  cultivation  has  advanced, 
farmers  have  found  that  they  could  turn  theii-  fields  to  more 
profitable  advantage,  and  avoid  the  damage  they  feared  to 
crops  and  pastiu'es.  With  the  decline  of  arable  land  and  laying 
down  so  much  of  the  countrj-  to  grass,  man}'  of  those  who  had  been 
accustomed  to  buy  annuall}'  a  fiock  of  goslings  for  putting  on  the 
stubbles  have  ceased  to  do  so,  which  explains  whj'  the  imports 
of  lean  live  geese  from  Ireland  and  the  Continent  of  Europe  have 
decreased  to  so  large  an  extent.  At  one  time  that  was  a  huge 
trade,  but  it  has  shrunk  greatly.  It  must  be  admitted  that 
farmers  know  their  business  well,  for,  in  view  of  lower  returns, 
the  contraction  of  opj)ortunity  means  that  what  might  at  one 
time  leave  a  moderate  margin  of  profit  no  longer  does  so.  The 
result  is  indicated  in  the  poultry  census  of  1908,  wherein  it  is 
shown  that  on  the  farms  of  Great  Britain  there  were  only  eight 
adult  geese  per  thousand  acres  of  cultivated  land.  Although 
Ireland  has  nearly  twice  as  man}'  of  these  birds  as  in  the  whole  of 
Britain,  due  to  its  greater  extent  of  open  lands,  the  same  tendency 
is  to  be  noted.  The  total  number  of  geese  bred  annually  in  the 
United  Kingdom  is  about  1,700,000,  or  slightly  over  one-fifth  of  a 
goose  per  family  of  five  persons  per  annum.  That  is  indeed  a 
poor  result. 

Reduction  in  Demand. — What  has  here  been  stated  would 
probably  not  have  taken  place  to  nearly  the  same  extent  had  the 
decline  in  suj)plies,  as  is  generally  the  case,  been  accomi^anicd 
by  a  corresponding  increase  of  values.  Such  has  not,  however, 
been  found,  otherwise  we  might  have  sought  an  explanation  in 
the  influence  of  higher  prices.  In  multitudes  of  households  a 
goose  is  never  found  upon  the  table  from  one  year  end  to  another, 
the  reasons  for  which  are  worthy  of  study.  Formerly  there  was 
a  great  demand  for  geese  at  the  Christmas  season.  That  was 
the  treat  of  the  domestic  festival.  Goose  clubs  enabled  even 
those  with  modest  means  to  indulge  to  this  extent,  and  the  sale 
through  their  media  was  very  large  indeed.     If  no  bird  of  this 


GOOSE  FARMING  325 

class  was  purchased  at  any  other  time,  then  it  made  an  appear- 
ance. Such  is  no  longer  true  to  the  same  degree,  so  far  as  our 
own  country  is  concerned,  although  in  the  last  year  or  two  an 
increased  sale  and  better  prices  have  been  noted.  The  demand 
is  for  other  classes  of  meat.  The  change  in  taste  is  by  no  means 
restricted,  however,  to  this  instance.  It  is  not  merely  a  question 
of  fashion. 

Size  of  Geese. — ^Throughout  Southern  Europe  the  type  of  goose 
generally  met  with  is  smaller  in  size  of  body  than  those  found 
in  the  western  and  northern  countries  of  the  Continent.  These 
are,  in  my  judgment,  descended  from  the  Roman  goose,  still  to 
be  found  in  Italy.  During  visits  to  the  last-named  country,  as 
to  Southern  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary,  I  realized  that  this 
was  the  common  type.  Plump,  fleshy  specimens,  weighing  in 
the  late  summer  8  to  9  pounds,  are  to  be  seen  on  the  market^;, 
and  appear  to  meet  with  a  steady  demand.  These  birds  come 
within  the  piirchasing  power  of  a  large  number  of  householders, 
which  would  not  be  the  case  with  larger  specimens.  As  is  well 
known,  such  foreign  geese  as  are  imported  into  Britain  are 
smaller  than  native  supplies,  or  even  those  from  France.  Poul- 
terers report  that  within  recent  years  the  demand  on  our  markets 
has  been  for  birds  of  a  more  moderate  size.  The  question  is, 
therefore,  whether  by  the  introduction  of  smaller  races  than  the 
Embden  and  Toulouse,  such  as  the  Roman,  we  could  not  rehabili- 
tate the  goose  in  popular  favour,  provided,  of  course,  that  these 
were  fleshy  in  relation  to  the  total  Aveight. 

Selling  Geese.— Were  what  has  just  been  suggested  carried  out, 
and  geese  of  a  size  more  in  keeping  with  the  requirements  of 
ordinary  householders  offered  for  sale,  there  is  everj^  probability 
that  we  should  find  a  much  larger  demand  from  Michaelmas 
onwards.  There  is  also  another  development  which  I  should 
like  to  see  tried — namely,  the  selling  of  parts  of  a  goose.  That 
plan  is  common  in  many  Continental  countries,  more  especiallj^ 
where  larger  geese  are  common,  as  in  France  and  Northern 
Germany.  In  the  latter  this  system  is  carried  out  most  com- 
pletely. Every  part  of  the  goose  appears  to  be  utilized.  Even 
the  skin  is  cooked  in  cheap  restaurants,  and  is  said  to  make  a 
highly  appreciated  dish  among  the  poorer  sections  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Places  for  Geese. — ^The  best  places  for  keeping  and  breeding 
geese  are  on  the  borders  of  commons,  moors,  or  waste  lands. 
There  is  an  abundance  of  areas  in  all  parts  of  the  countrj^  where 
flocks  might  be  kept,  thus  utilizing  ground  of  no  value  at  present. 


326  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

and,  by  providing  profitable  labour  for  farmers  and  cottagers, 
add  to  their  incomes.  All  that  is  needed  for  food,  except  when 
fattening,  will  be  a  little  corn  or  meal  at  night,  as  they  will 
forage  for  the  rest.  It  is  better  if  the  number  kept  is  sufficient 
to  let  a  boy  drive  them  to  their  feeding-ground  and  tend  them 
during  the  day.  They  should  be  under  cover  at  night  in  a  com- 
fortable house,  and  with  good  straw  bedding.  A  pond  or 
stream  is  by  no  means  imperatively  needed,  but  when  it  can  be 
given  is  conducive  to  their  well-being.  It  is  an  interesting  fact 
that  in  many  respects  geese  arc  very  similar  to  sheep,  and  what- 
ever land  is  suitable  for  one  is  equally  favourable  for  the  other. 
The  writer  can  remember  how  at  one  period  many  labourers 
reared  a  small  flock  of  geese  upon  the  commons,  and  where  these 
still  remain  that  custom  is  followed.  It  may  be  accepted  as  a 
recognized  fact  that  it  is  much  better  for  the  work  to  be  divided 


Fig.  58. — House  for  Geese. 


between  rearing  and  feeding;  land  which  is  suitable  for  the 
former  is  frequently  not  calculated  to  give  the  best  results  in  the 
final  stages. 

Housing  Geese. — ^The  goose  is  a  hardy  bird,  but  at  the  same 
time  requires  protection  during  \nifavourable  seasons  of  the 
year.  Fig.  58  shows  the  design  of  a  very  useful  form  of  house, 
which  is  equally  suitable  for  geese  as  for  turkeys,  where  a  special 
building  must  be  provided.  In  the  majority  of  places,  however, 
some  vacant  farm  building  can  be  used  in  this  way.  The  house 
should  be  large  enough  to  allow  10  square  feet  of  floor  for 
every  bird;  and  whilst  there  should  be  perfect  shelter  overhead, 
it  is  better  to  either  partially  or  entirely  bar  the  front  of  the 
house,  so  that  the  birds  may  have  plenty  of  fresh  air.  The 
building  should  be  lofty  and  well  ventilated,  and  we  prefer 
erections  which  are  at  least  7  feet  6  inches  in  height.  It  must 
be  thoro\ighly  dry,  and  a  great  amount  of  loss  will  be  avoided  if 
care  is  taktn  in  this  direction.     Although  geese  are  water-fowl. 


GOOSE  FARMING  327 

the  same  remarks  apply  as  in  the  case  of  ducks,  and  it  is  better 
if  the  floor  is  elevated  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  outside 
ground,  so  that  there  maybe  no  danger  whatever  of  dampness. 
An  excellent  plan  is  to  litter  out  the  house  well  with  straw  or 
dried  leaves,  either  of  which  forms  a  very  valuable  manure  when 
impregnated  with  the  droppings  from  the  birds,  which  must  be 
driven  in  at  night.  If  their  food  is  given  in  the  evening,  there 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  securing  their  return  home. 

Hatching. — ^Young  geese  commence  laying  about  the  middle 
or  end  of  Februarj^  and  older  birds  a  month  later.  It  is  much 
better  to  breed  from  the  more  mature  birds ;  j^et  if  early  goslings 
are  required,  the  latter  cannot  be  waited  for,  as  they  are  con- 
siderably later  in  commencing  to  lay.  When  the  strain  is  a  good 
one — strong,  and  not  at  all  inbred — then  the  eggs  from  young 
birds  can  be  taken  without  fear,  and  will  hatch  out  well,  the  only 
drawback  being  that  they  do  not  grow  quite  so  fast  as  those 
from  older  stock.  In  no  case  should  they  be  kept  for  breeding. 
In  the  case  of  white  geese,  if  the  eggs  are  left  in  the  nest,  as  soon 
as  about  fifteen  are  laid  the  mother  will  show  a  desire  to  sit;  but 
if  they  are  removed  regularly,  she  will  probably  lay  nearly  twice 
as  many  before  desiring  to  do  so.  The  latter  is  the  plan  usually 
adopted,  and  half  the  eggs  are  generally  set  under  large  ordinary 
hens,  giving  four  to  each.  Some  breeders  never  allow  a  goose  to 
sit  at  all,  considering  that  they  are  unsafe,  being  heavy  and 
clumsy.  If  this  plan  is  adopted,  the  eggs  must  be  regularly 
sprinkled  in  the  nest,  as  the  shells  are  very  hard  and  thick,  or 
otherwise  the  young  birds  will  not  be  able  to  break  through. 
Some  geese  lay  two  clutches  of  eggs  in  one  season,  but  they  have 
to  be  early  bred  and  from  a  good  strain  to  do  so. 

The  time  of  incubation  for  geese  is  thirty  days,  and  it  is  better 
not  to  disturb  the  nest  during  the  time,  except  in  case  of  accident, 
as  the  mother  is  very  spiteful  and  pugilistic.  Should  her  mate 
be  near,  it  may  even  be  dangerous  to  do  so,  as  they  have  great 
power  in  their  wings,  and  can  deal  a  tremendous  blow.  A  regular 
attendant,  however,  soon  becomes  familiar  to  them,  and  he  need 
not  be  so  careful. 

Rearing. — As  soon  as  hatching  is  over,  plenty  of  food  and 
water  should  be  placed  near  the  goose,  so  that  she  may  satisfy 
her  own  appetite,  and  then  both  her  mate  and  herself  will  attend 
to  the  little  goslings.  Goslings  are  about  the  easiest  of  all 
domestic  poultry  to  rear,  and  when  once  hatched  require  very 
little  looking  after.  They  are  unlike  chickens  in  that  thej'  do 
not  require  brooding  to  the  same  extent.     When  hatched,  place 


328  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

them  in  a  roomy  coop  or  crate,  30  inches  square,  but  it  is  better 
not  to  give  a  large  run  at  first.  The  coop  must  be  situated  in 
a  sheltered  position,  as  the  sun's  rays  are  fatal  to  young  goslings. 
If  there  are  jolenty  of  bushes  or  trees  about,  that  is  simple,  for 
the  coop  can  be  placed  under  their  lee;  but  if  the  situation  is 
open  and  bare,  some  shelter  must  be  improvised.  The  coop  can 
then  be  made  with  a  large  caved  roof.  In  addition,  hurdles,  in 
which  has  been  interlaced  furze,  should  be  provided,  and  if  freely 
scattered  about  these  will  be  welcomed  by  the  goslings.  An 
excellent  plan  is  to  cover  the  coop  with  furze,  as  that  keeps  it 
cool.  In  all  cases  the  coop  should  be  bottomless,  for  the  goslings 
are  unable  to  hold  their  feet  on  a  wooden  floor,  and  are  very 
aj)t  to  injure  themselves  by  slipping  about.  Goslings  are  not 
usually  hatched  until  the  weather  is  open  and  mild,  and  are  not 
delicate  by  nature;  but  the  coop  should  be  made  roomy,  as  the 
3'oungsters  grow  very  fast.  When  about  ten  days  old  they  can 
be  liberated  from  the  run,  and  will  prove  splendid  foragers.  At 
this  period  they  may  be  removed  to  a  house  or  shed. 

Feeding  Goslings. — Early  feeding  must  be  all  in  the  direction 
of  building  up  a  frame  on  which  the  flesh  may  be  laid.  The  best 
food  from  the  first  is  barley-meal  and  wheat.  The  whole  grain 
should  be  scalded  and  dried  up  with  meal.  Variations  may  be 
made  by  giving  ground  oats,  or  by  boiling  potatoes  and  drying 
them  up  with  the  meal.  When  about  two  months  old  the  birds 
may  be  fed  on  raw  grain  and  sliced  potatoes.  Such  feeding, 
however,  is  expensive  for  ordinarj^  purposes;  that  is  why  maize 
is  generally  used.  Goslings  are  also  very  fond  of  young  grass, 
green  onions,  chickweed,  and  an  early  cabbage  hung  within  their 
reach  will  be  highly  appreciated.  No  other  special  ]:)rovision  is 
necessary  except  the  giving  of  water,  which  must  not  be  forgotten. 

Young  goslings,  if  the  fields  are  clear  of  their  crops,  should  be 
allowed  to  wander  about  most  of  the  day  when  the  weather  is  at 
all  fine,  but  they  ought  to  be  placed  under  the  care  of  a  lad,  so 
as  to  prevent  their  wandering  away  too  far  and  overrunning 
themselves.  He  can  easily  keep  them  in  order  and  bring  them 
home  at  night. 

For  reasons  which  have  already  been  explained,  economy  in 
feeding  is  most  important  in  connection  with  goslings,  and  every 
ounce  of  unnecessary  food  given  is  to  a  large  extent  wasted. 
In  many  districts,  especially  on  the  richer  soils  and  during  a 
fairly  moist  summer,  with  the  exception  of  a  little  food — say 
any  good  meal  made  into  a  paste  in  the  morning,  and  a  few  oats 
or  wheat  steeped  in  water  in  the  evening — they  will  not  require 
any  supplied  food  at  all.     They  are  essentially  grass-eaters,  and 


GOOSE  FARMING  331 

will  find  practically  the  whole  of  their  sustenance.  The  goose 
raiser  should  bear  in  mind  that  his  business  is  not  to  substitute 
artificial  for  natural  food,  but  to  give  the  former  in  order  to  make 
up  for  any  deficiency  of  the  latter.  During  a  very  dry  summer 
the  birds  will  recpiire  to  be  fed  constantly,  because  at  that  season 
there  is  no  natural  food  available,  and  conseciuently  they  must 
be  pro\ided  with  an  abundance,  more  especially  of  green  food. 

Fattening. — Geese  arc  altogether  different  from  ordinary  fowls, 
or  even  ducks,  in  one  respect,  and  a  mistake  is  sometimes  made 
in  the  final  fattening  off  by  putting  each  bird  into  a  separate 
compartment.  Geese  never  thrive  in  this  way,  and,  instead  of 
getting  fatter,  actually  pine  away.  They  appear  to  be  miserable 
without  company,  and  each  lot  should  be  killed  together,  or  the 
ones  left  behind  rapidly  lose  flesh.  tSome  birds  fatten  quicker 
than  others,  and  as  they  are  seen  to  get  into  ripe  condition, 
which  can  best  be  decided  by  the  state  of  their  appetites,  they 
had  better  be  killed  off.  As  soon  as  they  are  as  fat  as  they  will 
be,  the  desire  for  food  begins  to  slacken,  and  then  it  is  that  they 
should  be  despatched,  or  they  will  lose  flesh  instead  of  gaining  it. 
The  food  should  be  soft  in  the  morning,  and  corn  in  the  afternoon, 
a  large  trough  of  clean  water  being  always  at  hand,  but  not  so 
that  they  can  get  into  it.  The  soft  food  may  consist  of  barley- 
meal  mixed  with  Indian  meal  and  pollard,  and  the  corn  of  wheat 
and  barley,  which  are  better  if  steeped.  Plenty  of  grit  must 
always  be  provided. 

German  Methods. — In  Germany  consumption  of  goose  flesh  is 
enormous,  and  is  almost  universal,  varying  from  the  goose 
breasts  of  Pomerania  to  the  pate  de  foies  cjras  of  Strassburg. 
Although  there  has  been  an  advance  in  production  in  a  few 
provinces,  that  is  small  as  compared  with  the  demand,  owing  to 
the  rapidly  increasing  popidation  and  greater  p^irchasing  power. 
As  a  result  vast  quantities  of  live  geese  are  imported,  chiefly  from 
Russia.  In  the  vicinity  of  nearly  all  the  great  cities  are  huge 
fattening  establishments,  several  of  which  I  have  visited.  These 
are  supplied  by  goose  trains,  consisting  of  special  three-decked 
vans,  some  of  which  I  have  seen  on  arrival.  One  of  these  at 
Berlin  had  brought  15,000  geese  from  the  Russian  frontier.  The 
system  adopted  is  fully  described  in  my  "  Report  on  the  Poultry 
Industry  in  Germany." 

The  goose-fattening  plants  are  in  many  cases  on  an  extensive 
scale,  splendidly  ecpiipped  with  large  roomy  sheds,  plucking, 
chilling,  and  packing  rooms.  At  one  of  those  visited  there  was 
accommodation  for   10,000   geese.     The   food   given   varies   in 


332  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

accordance  with  markets.  For  lower-quality  birds  maize  is 
largely  used,  as  it  is  a  cheap  food  and  makes  for  bulk,  even  though 
that  consists  of  oily  fat,  and  therefore  is  not  economical  to  the 
buyer.  For  the  better-class  trade  oats  and  what  is  called 
crusted  barley  are  used,  producing  abundant  and  firm  flesh. 
Smaller  specimens  are  fed  three  weeks,  in  which  time  thej^  will 
increase  in  weight  by  4j  to  5h  pounds.  Larger  specimens  are 
fed  four  weeks,  growing  by  6f  to  nearly  9  pounds.  If  the  feathers 
are  plucked,  they  can  be  fed  for  six  weeks,  and  exceptional 
specimens  have  been  known  to  add  13  to  nearly  L5|  pounds  to 
the  weight.     All  are  dry-picked,  as  scalding  spoils  the  fat. 


CHAPTER  XX 

TURKEYS  AS  FARM  STOCK 


Nearly  four  hundred  j^ears  ago  the  turkey"  was  first  introduced 
into  this  country.  It  speedily  became  a  favourite  dish  with  the 
wealthier  members  of  society,  continuing  as  a  luxury  until  the 
latter  half  of  last  century,  when  it  came  into  more  general  con- 
sumption. The  demand  is  now  general  among  all  classes  of  the 
community,  and  would  advance  more  rapidly  but  for  the  fact 
that  inadequate  supplies  maintain  prices  to  a  high  point,  usually 
beyond  the  reach  of  our  industrial  population,  who,  however,  are 
provided  for  to  some  extent  by  imports,  which  sell  at  much 
lower  rates  than  do  the  best  qualities  of  home  turkeys  and  of 
French.  As  a  rule.  South  European  birds  are  lacking  in  flavour 
and  cUy  in  flesh.     They  are,  however,  much  cheaper  than  our  own. 

More  Turkeys  wanted. — A  reasonable  estimate  is  that  about 
two  million  turkeys  are  annually  consumed  in  the  United  King- 
dom, of  which  rather  less  than  25  per  cent,  are  foreign.  The 
finest  imported  come  from  France,  almost  rivalling  our  own,  as 
the  French  are  skilful  breeders  and  feeders.  In  spite  of  growing 
demand,  there  has  not  been  any  marked  increase  of  production 
within  recent  years,  which  is  surprising  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
under  suitable  conditions  and  with  proper  management  there 
is  no  more  profitable  branch  of  live-stock,  provided  the  occupa- 
tions are  large.  This  is  essentially  a  farmer's  fowl,  demanding 
a  considerable  amount  of  space  to  roam  over.  The  recorded 
number  of  tmkeys  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  as  follows : 


Adults.       .  Young  Turkeys. 

England  (1908) 
Wales  (1908) 
Scotland  (1908)       . . 
Ireland  (1913) 

1  t(j,000               395,000 
26,000                 61,000 
27,000                 42,000 
70,428              963,046 

Totals       . . 

b69,428           1,461,046 

333 


334  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

It  is  evident  production  could  bo  doubled  without  danger  of 
outrctiching  demand.  Presuming  that  the  above  figures  are 
correct,  the  relative  number  of  young  birds  to  adults  is  remark- 
ably small.     Respectively  these  are — 

In  England    2-7  young  to  1  old  bird. 
In  Wales        2-34 

In  Scotland  l'5u         ,,         ,,         „ 
In  Ireland      5'65         ,,         ,,         „ 

(Such  can  in  no  case  be  profitable.  The  average  ought  to  be  at 
least  eight  to  ten  young  turkeys  to  each  adult.  At  the  present 
time  the  total  consumption  does  not  appear  to  be  more  than  one 
tmkey  annually  to  every  twenty-three  inhabitants  in  the  United 
Kingdom. 

Space  required. — Within  the  last  few  years  serious  losses  have 
followed  the  adoption  of  more  intensive  methods  in  turkey - 
breeding,  especially  in  America,  where  the  effects  have  been 
most  disastrous,  devastating  what  at  one  time  were  great  turkey- 
producing  districts  in  New  England.  During  mj^  visit  to  some 
of  the  chief  centres,  I  could  come  to  no  other  conclusion  than 
that  this  result  was  owing  to  tainted  soil,  following  the  keeping 
of  birds  beyond  its  capacity — that  is,  by  concentration  rather 
than  distribution.  On  farms  visited  it  was  revealed  that,  even 
where  there  was  plenty  of  land  for  the  numbers  maintained  and 
bred,  these  have  been  kept  and  reared  near  to  the  homesteads, 
with  the  result  that  the  soil  was  "  turkey-sick,''  and  various 
diseases,  principally  what  is  known  as  "  black-head,"  carry  off 
the  young  birds.  We  have  not  been  without  examples  of  the 
same  nature  in  this  country,  though  less  serious  and  in  isolated 
instances,  which  ought  to  be  a  warning. 

Again,  it  is  desirable  to  emphasize  that  the  turkey  is  more 
suited  to  those  who  occupy  larger  or  medium-sized  farms  than 
upon  small  holdings.  There  can  be  no  question  that  under 
suitable  conditions,  where  plenty  of  space  is  available,  there  is 
no  branch  of  farmmg  which  can  be  made  to  yield  a  greater 
amount  of  profit.  The  number  of  turkeys  nnist  in  every  sense 
be  relative  to  the  amount  of  land  available,  and  that  land  nuist 
be  cultivated  in  a  regular  manner  to  its  fidlcst  extent.  There 
is  no  reason  whatever  why  in  many  parts  of  the  country  turkey- 
raising  should  nut  be  increased  enormously. 

Suitable  Conditions. — A  very  common  impression  is  that 
tiukeys  are  delicate.  There  can  be  no  question  whatever  that 
during  certain  stages  of  their  growth  they  require  careful  atten- 
tion.    A  word  is  said  below  with  regard  to  this  delicacj'.     My 


TURKEYS  AS  FARM  STOCK  335 

point  is  to  recognize  that  under  many  conditions  the  turkey 
would  be  found  delicate  by  reason  of  the  unfavourable  nature 
of  the  soil.  These  birds  can  withstand  cold,  and  even  rain  does 
not  affect  them  so  adversely  as  many  people  imagine,  because 
it  is  well  knowai  that  there  are  vast  quantities  of  tm-keys  raised 
in  Ireland  and  in  some  of  the  western  districts  of  England.  The 
question  which  anyone  who  is  taking  up  turkey-farming  must 
consider  is  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Damp  and  heavy  lands  are 
fatal  to  success,  and  neither  breeding  stock  nor  the  young  birds 
will  thrive  or  prove  profitable  under  such  conditions.  As  I  have 
explained  in  the  chapter  dealing  with  climate  and  soil,  heavy 
land  is  colder  by  reason  of  the  large  amount  of  moisture  con- 
tained therein,  which  checks  the  growth  of  young  and  adversely 
affects  the  older  birds.  Moreover,  even  if  the  turkeys  are  grown 
to  a  killing  age,  their  flesh  will  never  be  so  good  as  if  they  had 
been  raised  upon  a  more  kindly  soil.  I  do  not  advocate  for  one 
moment  that  they  should  be  kejDt  upon  sand,  for  the  nature  of 
sandy  soil  is  by  no  means  favourable  to  the  extent  frequently 
imagined.  The  better  the  land,  provided  that  it  is  light  or 
medium  in  its  nature  and  well  drained,  the  better  the  turkeys 
will  be,  and  the  less  trouble  will  they  cause  to  the  owner.  The 
conditions  which  are  most  suited  to  this  industry  are  where  the 
land  is  hilly  or  undulating.  There  the  natural  cUainage  is  generally 
good.  It  is  undesirable  to  attempt  rearing  the  birds  in  low 
valley  lands,  as  these  are  generally  damp.  Any  farmer,  therefore, 
who  is  contemplathig  extending  his  enterj)rise,  and  raising 
considerable  numbers  of  turkeys,  should  in  the  first  place 
consider  the  nature  of  his  soil.  If  it  comes  within  the  category 
mentioned,  even  though  the  elevation  should  be  considerable, 
there  are  no  objectionable  external  reasons  relative  to  the 
position.  Flat  land,  it  is  obvious,  is  not  nearly  so  good,  as  it 
is  seldom  well  drained,  although  large  numbers  of  turke3\s  are 
raised  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Fens.  A  finther  point  to 
consider  is  that  wherever  turkeys  are  bred  there  must  be  plenty 
of  natural  shelter.  Hence  we  should  be  inclined  to  shut  out 
considerable  areas  of  countr}-  which  are  practically  treeless,  and 
where,  consequently,  the  birds  would  be  unduly  exposed. 

Within  the  last  few  3'ears  several  attempts  have  been  made 
in  this  country,  although  the  same  plan  was  carried  out  even  as 
far  back  as  three  hundred  years  ago,  to  breed  turkey's  under  more 
natural  conditions  than  upon  ordinary  farms.  The  stock  are 
placed  in  woods,  and  allowed  to  live  there  in  the  way  which 
would  be  the  case  in  their  wild  state.  No  interference  takes 
place  with  them;  they  breed  when  and  where  they  like,  and  as 


336  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

soon  as  the  number  increases  beyond  a  certain  stage,  or  when 
any  birds  are  wanted,  they  are  shot.  This  system  deserves 
encouragement,  because  it  should  be  the  means  of  providing 
those  who  raise  turkeys  for  market  with  vigorous  stock  birds, 
and  in  this  manner  correct  the  tendency,  which  is  always  evident 
under  domestication,  to  enfeeblement.  To  claim,  however,  that 
this  is  the  only  way  in  which  turkeys  should  be  bred  is  to  abso- 
lutely ignore  the  fact  that  the  industry  is  not  intended  merely 
for  the  purpose  of  providing  either  sport  or  pleasure  for  a  few 
wealthy  folk,  but  as  a  source  of  income  for  our  agricultural 
community.  If  turkey-raising  were  to  be  restricted  to  the 
conditions  we  have  named,  for  every  hundred  who  now  raise 
these  birds  there  would  be  only  one  who  could  possibly  do  so. 

Stock  Birds. — ^The  male  turkey  to  a  larger  extent  than  is 
generally  assumed  influences  his  progeny.  That  is  true  if  he 
were  mated  with  only  one  hen ;  but  when  he  will  serve  a  dozen 
or  a  score  of  females,  and  be  the  progenitor  of  all  their  poults 
for  that  season,  it  is  at  once  evident  that  his  direct  influence  will 
be  twelve  or  twenty  times  that  of  each  individual  hen  in  the 
flock.  Any  deficiency  in  one  hen  will  apply  to  her  brood  and  no 
more,  whereas  inferiority  in  the  male  will  influence  those  bred 
from  all  the  hens.  To  put  it  on  a  weight  basis,  if,  by  lack  of  size 
or  weakened  constitution,  the  poults  of  one  turkey  hen  when 
matured  are  1  pound  each  below  the  average,  the  owner  may  lose 
returns  for,  say,  12  pounds;  but  if  the  cock  is  the  cause,  all  will 
be  affected,  and  with  ten  hens  120  pounds  may  be  sacrificed. 
Further,  lowered  vitality  in  one  hen  may  mean  infertility  in  her 
eggs  or  death  of  the  j^oungsters ;  but  should  the  cock  bird  be  at 
fault,  then  the  loss  will  be  commensurately  greater.  Whilst, 
therefore,  it  is  desirable  to  make  careful  selection  of  the  hens, 
as  shown  below,  and  any  neglect  in  that  respect  is  to  be  depre- 
cated as  false  economy,  the  choice  of  the  male  is  of  tenfold 
greater  importance,  by  reason  of  the  wider  influence  exerted 
by  him. 

In  selecting  a  male  turkey,  he  should  be  well  developed  in 
breast  and  body,  without  excessive  size,  have  a  strong,  long 
frame  and  limbs,  be  active  in  habit,  carry  himself  in  a  stately 
manner  and  freely  disport  his  plumage,  be  ready  to  resent  the 
presence  of  strangers,  and  be  quick  and  strong  in  voice.  If  in 
addition  to  these  he  owns  a  satisfactory  parentage,  he  can  hardly 
fail  to  give  satisfaction.  A  further  point  is  that  he  should  have 
been  reared  under  favourable  conditions,  where  there  was  plenty 
of  scope  for  his  wandering  spirit. 

There  is  a  greater  difference  in  weight  between  the  male  and 


TURKEYS  AS  FARM  STOCK 


'S3: 


female  turkey  than  is  the  case  with  other  kinds  of  poultry.  That 
aj)pears  to  be  true  equally  with  the  wild  and  domesticated  sj  ecics. 
As  will  be  seen  by  the  following  table,  taking  100  as  the  mean 
for  the  male,  the  figures  shown  indicate  the  relative  weights  of 
the  females: 


Dorking  fowl 
Minorca  fowl 
Plymouth  Rock  fowl 
Aylesbury  duck  . . 
Toulouse  goose     . . 
Bronze  American  turkey 


100 

79 

100 

86 

100 

82 

100 

90 

100 

72 

100 

OD 

So  that  in  standard-bred  birds  the  female  turkey  is  only  a  little 
more  than  half  the  weight  of  the  male.  At  the  same  time,  her 
influence  in  respect  to  the  size  which  poults  bred  from  her  will 
ultimately  attain  is  considerable,  anel  consec[uently  it  is  desirable 
that  she  shoukl  not  be  small.  She  should  be  fully  elevelopeel  in 
length  anel  depth  of  boely,  be  active  in  habit,  j-et  c[uiet  in  dis- 
jjosition,  anel  amenable  to  control.  A  turkey  hen  which  makes 
a  gooel  forager  is  more  likely  to  proeluce  vigorous  poults  than  if 
she  is  an  indolent  "  stay  at  home."  Apart  from  structure  anel 
size  of  boely  of  the  indivielual,  it  may  be  expecteel  that  the 
elaughter  of  a  gooel  mother  will  reprcduce  the  maternal  instinct 
satisfactorily.  The  turkey  hen  is  dignified  rather  than  assertive 
in  carriage,  anel  has  a  soft,  flute-like  voice.  As  her  plumage  is 
less  brilliant  than  that  of  the  male  in  the  colour  breeels,  so  long 
as  she  conforms  to  the  racial  characteristics,  it  is  unwise  to 
accord  any  great  weight  in  that  direction. 

'  Age  o£  Breeding  Stock. — ^The  consensus  of  experience  is  that 
the  elomesticateel  turkey  is  much  less  vigorous  than  the  wild 
species,  specially  indicated  by  elifficulties  in  rearing,  which  are 
thought  to  be  greater  than  in  almost  any  other  class  of  poultry. 
The  explanation  may  partly  be  from  the  fact  that  such  domes- 
tication has  been  comparatively  recent,  anel  that  these  birds 
have  not  fully  adapteel  themselves  to  the  changeel  conditions, 
though  after  four  centuries  that  should  not  be  the  case.  I  have 
no  eloidjt  whatever  that  the  most  potent  reason  for  weakness 
in  the  poults  is  elue  to  the  use  of  innnature  stock,  a  fact  which 
is  becoming  recognizeel  by  breeelers,  though  not  nearly  to  the 
extent  necessary.  It  is  generally  accepted  that  a  turkej'  does 
not  attain  maturity  until  it  is  nearly  three  years  olel.     That  being 


SJ8  l^OULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

so,  from  such  ago  onwards  should  bo  the  period  when  the  birds 
will  transmit  to  their  progeny  the  greatest  amount  of  constitu- 
tional vigour.  On  the  other  hand,  if  mated  before  maturity  is 
attained,  or,  rather,  before  it  is  approaching,  and  such  is  continued 
in  successive  generations,  gradually  lessened  powers  are  the  result. 
(Such  is  scientifically  true  and  in  accordance  with  practical 
experience. 

The  period  of  mating,  however,  should  not  be  luiduly  delayed, 
otherwise  functional  activity  may  be  checked  and  fertility 
lessened.  A  safe  rule  will  be  not  to  use  yearlings  of  either  sex 
as  breeders,  and  to  regard  that  as  the  period  of  growth .  Matings 
should  be  made  when  two  years  old,  and  can  be  continued  for 
three  years.  As  there  is  no  advantage  in  ver}^  early  hatching  of 
turkeys,  the  temptation  to  use  young  stock,  as  when  breeding 
table  chickens  and  ducklings,  is  absent.  The  one  cU'awback  to 
the  use  of  older  males  is  that  they  sometimes  tear  the  hens,  but 
that  can  be  prevented  by  cutting  the  spurs.  The  disproiiortion, 
aJixad}'  referred  to,  in  size  of  male  and  female  turkeys  makes  it 
all  the  more  necessary  that  the  latter  shall  be  as  old  as  the  former, 
and  if  either  is  the  younger  it  should  be  the  male. 

Size  oJ  Domesticated  Turkeys. — It  is  a  very  conunon  opinion 
that  the  wild-turkey  is  nnich  larger  than  any  of  our  domesticated 
races,  but  fuller  inquiry  does  not  justify  such  a  view,  and  it 
would  be  against  all  experience  with  other  species. 

In  this  connection  there  is  a  very  important  question  for  the 
breeder,  namely.  What  weights  should  the  stock  be  when  mated  ? 
— that  is,  in  relationship  to  the  general  standard.  To  a  con- 
siderable extent  size  in  our  domesticated  races  is  abnormal,  and 
by  neglect  we  should  find  reduction  very  speedily.  Turkeys  are 
kept  entirely  for  their  meat  qualities,  and  therefore  volume  of 
flesh  is  of  importance.  We  require  bulk  of  frame,  a  deep  keel, 
a  long  sternum,  and  stout  legs,  abundantly  covered  with  strong, 
thick  muscles,  but  we  do  not  want  fat,  which  adds  to  the  bulk, 
and  at  the  same  time  checks  the  functional  and  muscular  activi- 
ties. Therefore,  both  in  the  case  of  cocks  and  hens  the  body 
should  be  kept  hard  and  firm,  and,  so  long  as  the  skeleton  is  large, 
heavy  weights  are  undesirable,  but  more  so  in  the  former  than 
the  latter.  Hens  weighing  IG  to  17  pounds,  and  cocks  scaling 
at  20  to  22  pounds,  will  produce  c^uicker -growing  and  ultimately 
heavier  poults  for  the  market  than  would  fat  specimens  weighing 
several  i)ounds  more.  The  capacity  to  fatten  must  be  there. 
That  is  frequently  a  family  quality. 

Apart  from  the  use  of  yearlings  for  stock,  sometimes  we  find 
t  irkey  breeders  who   keep  the  small,  weedy  specimens,   which 


TURKEYS  AS  FARM  STOCK  339 

can  only  be  sold  at  reduced  prices,  for  the  next  season's  work. 
That  is  a  foolish  action,  and  needs  no  more  to  be  said  in  con- 
demnation. Others  grow  all  in  the  same  manner,  and  then  pick 
out  in  December  such  as  they  wish  to  retain.  Selection  of  those 
that  are  intended  to  be  used  as  breeders  eighteeen  months  later 
should  be  made  in  the  early  autumn  before  the  fattening  or 
feechng-off  stage  commences,  and  given  a  free  run  where  they  can 
find  the  greater  jiart  of  their  food  until  the  supply  is  reduced. 

Number  of  Hens  to  Male. — One  impregnation  will  usually  fer- 
tilize the  entire  batch  of  eggs  laid  by  a  tiukey  hen.  Therefore, 
as  the  number  j^roduccd  by  her  is  not  large,  a  male  can  be  used 
for  a  considerable  flock.  There  are  great  variations  in  the 
immber  of  eggs  produced  by  individual  hens.  Record  has  been 
made  of  one  bird  laying  eighty  eggs  in  a  suigle  season,  but  that 
is  very  exceptional,  and  as  a  rule  one-fourth  to  one-half  that 
number  would  be  more  general.  We  have  no  definite  data  as 
to  how  many  eggs  would  be  fully  fertilized,  but  probably  a  dozen 
to  fifteen  would  be  the  maximum.  Therefore,  increased  pro- 
duction would  necessitate  successive  service.  Tm'keys  are  not, 
however,  kept  to  produce  eggs,  except  for  hatching  purposes, 
and  there  is  nothing  to  be  gained  by  increasing  unduly  the 
inimber  laid.  That  this  can  be  effected  is  unquestionable  in 
the  same  way  as  with  other  jioultry — namely,  by  removal  of  eggs 
from  the  nest  as  they  are  laid.  In  this  manner  many  breeders 
obtain  from  twenty  to  thirty  eggs  before  the  hen  commences 
to  sit,  the  excess  of  which  above  her  capacity  to  cover  are  given 
to  yearling  hens  or  ordinary  fowls.  In  experience  it  is  found 
that  an  active  two-year-old  male  can  be  used  with,  a  score  of 
hens,  reducmg  the  number  m  succeeding  seasons  until  ten  is  his 
final  year's  harem.  As  a  rule  only  one  batch  of  eggs  is  produced 
each  season,  though  sometimes  a  second  lot  will  be  obtained  in 
the  summer,  which  are  not,  however,  usually  worth  using  for 
hatching. 

Houses  and  Roosts. — ^Not  much  need  be  said  upon  these  points, 
for  the  reason  that,  in  the  case  of  houses,  the  less  they  are  used 
the  better.  Turkeys  should  always  be  kept  separate  from  other 
poultry  and  treated  si)ecially.  He  would  be  a  poor  farmer  who 
housed  his  horses  and  pigs,  his  cattle  and  sheej^,  in  one  buikUng. 
AMiere  large  trees  are  available  for  shelter,  the  better  plan  is  to 
jilace  roosts  below  them  similar  to  those  shown  in  Fig.  60,  and 
let  the  buxls  live  in  the  open  all  the  time.  Sometimes  a  large 
roomy  shed  or  barn  is  available,  which  is  useful  for  adult  birds. 
The  only  disadvantage  is  that  frequently  care  k  not  taken  to 


340 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


secui-e  sufficient  ventilation,  and  that  the  birds  do  not  during  the 
day  range  to  any  great  extent.  Where  a  house  has  to  be  built, 
that  shown  in  Fig  59,  made  of  furze  bushes,  would  be  very 
valuable  during  the  fattening  stage.     A  house  40  feet  by  15  feet. 


and  10  feet  to  the  eaves,  will  accommodate  forty  turkeys — that 
is,  allowing  15  square  feet  of  floor  space,  or  150  cubic  feet  of  air 
space,  for  every  adult.  The  earth  should  be  dry,  and  may  be 
littered  with  chaff,  in  which  grain  may  be  fed  to  be  scratched 


s  f^  ~      ■  \ ..  Hit 

Fig.  go. — Roost  for  Turkeys. 


for.  Perches  made  of  tree  branches,  as  seen  in  Fig.  60,  can  be 
placed  at  the  back,  3  feet  above  the  ground.  The  only  excuse 
for  using  houses  for  turkeys  is  when  foxes  are  troublesome,  except 
in  the  month  before  the  birds  are  killed. 


TURKEYS  AS  FARM  STOCK  341 

Hatching. — One  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  turkey,  due  probably 
to  her  more  recent  domestication,  is  that  she  prefers  to  lay  in  a 
nest  of  her  own  choosing.  Up  to  the  present  time  artificial 
incubation  has  not  been  found  successful  in  connection  with 
turkeys,  although  one  of  the  leading  turkey  breeders  in  Suffolk, 
Mr.  Gage  Harper,  employs  an  incubator  for  use  in  the  last  two 
days,  simply  to  bring  the  young  chicks  out.  He  does  not  recom- 
mend the  eggs  being  kept  in  an  incubator  during  the  whole 
period.  Turkeys  make  splendid  sitters  and  mothers,  and,  as 
there  is  no  advantage  in  too  early  hatching,  the  hens  usually 
become  broody  c^uite  soon  enough  for  our  purpose.  Where  the 
turkeys  are  roosting  in  the  trees  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  put 
two  or  three  boxes  or  empty  barrels  upon  their  sides  in  some 
out-of-the-way  corner.  Very  often  it  will  be  found  that  the 
turkey  hen,  imagining  that  she  has  discovered  a  place  of  which 
no  one  else  knows  anything,  will  commence  to  lay  there.  At 
this  period  it  is  necessary  to  observe  her  very  carefully,  and  to 
remove  the  eggs  as  they  are  laid,  leaving  a  dummy  in  the  nest. 
W^ien  she  has  produced  about  fifteen  eggs  some  may  be  left 
there,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  she  will  commence  her  sitting 
operations.  If  desired,  she  can  be  allowed  to  sit  in  the  same 
place ;  but  as  many  of  the  best  breeders  prefer  to  have  the  birds 
under  control,  when  she  has  become  thoroughly  settled  upon  the 
nest,  she  may  be  removed  at  night  elsewhere  without  much  fear 
of  breaking  her  off.  That  plan  is  certainly  desirable,  because 
otherwise  the  male  is  apt  to  disturb  her  and  cause  mischief  to 
the  eggs.  Where  turkeys  are  put  upon  nests  of  the  kind  last 
referred  to,  these  should  be  in  boxes  at  least  30  inches  square, 
and  be  there  treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  described 
previously  for  fowls.  It  is  well  to  mention  that  sometimes 
a  turkey  hen  can  be  induced  to  lay  twenty  to  thirty  eggs. 
Under  these  circumstances  she  may  be  provided  with  fifteen, 
and  the  remainder  placed  under  a  quiet,  well-feathered,  and 
good  sitting  ordinary  hen.  If  that  plan  is  adopted,  when  the 
hatching  is  completed  the  entire  batch  may  be  given  to  the 
turkey  for  rearing,  as  she  is  able  to  brood  a  much  larger  number 
of  chicks  than  she  can  cover  eggs.  We  must  not  forget  that 
turkeys  are  very  close  sitters,  and  therefore  it  is  essential  to  see 
that  they  come  off  the  nest  every  day  for  feeding.  A  turkey 
hen,  if  allowed,  would  feed  upon  the  nest,  but  that  is  neither 
good  for  herself  nor  for  the  embrj'os.  If  she  is  carefully  handled, 
and  removed  to  an  open  yard,  and  there  given  food,  water,  and 
a  dust  bath,  she  will  return  to  her  nest  reinvigorated  for  another 
day's  duties.     The  period  of  hatching  is  about  twenty-eight  dajs. 


342  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

The  advantage  of  using  an  incubator  for  the  final  stage  is  that 
there  is  no  fear  of  the  young  chicks  being  crushed  by  the  mother, 
as  is  often  the  case  with  such  heavy  birds. 

Rearing. — ^^Vhen  the  young  birds  are  hatched,  they  should  be 
left  in  the  nest  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours  before  they  are 
removed;  but  it  is  better  that  the  hen  should  be  well  fed  at  once. 
Large  roomy  coops  of  the  ordinary  pattern  are  required  for 
turkeys,  and,  for  the  first  few  days,  to  these  should  be  added 
wooden -framed  runs,  about  1  foot  deep,  and  covered  with 
netting,  because  it  is  generally  admitted  that  tm'key  chicks  are 
slow  in  assuming  full  activity.  These  runs  will  not  be  required 
for  more  than  about  ten  days,  except  when  ordinary  fowls  are 
employed.  Under  such  circumstances  the  hens  must  be  con- 
fined for  a  longer  period.  At  the  end  of  ten  days  the  turkey  hens 
may  be  given  their  liberty,  as  thej^  will  not  be  likely  to  lead  the 
chicks  astray  too  far,  in  which  direction  a  turkey  is  more  reliable 
than  a  fowl.  It  is  essential,  however,  that  the  hen  and  her 
brood  shall  be  closed  in  at  night.  Coops  should  be  placed 
where  they  will  be  sheltered  from  unfavourable  winds,  and  be 
about  30  yards  apart,  x^referably  on  arable  land.  These  must 
be  moved  on  to  fresh  ground  every  day.  In  districts  where 
there  is  plenty  of  natural  shelter  that  is  all  required  in  the  way  of 
protection.  Mr.  Gage  Harper,  who  is  one  of  the  most  successful 
rearers  in  East  Anglia — a  district  which  is  wind-swept  during 
the  spring  months  of  the  year — follows  a  plan  that  can  be  recom- 
mended. He  always  plants  a  field  in  rye-grass,  and  as  soon  as 
the  rye  is  from  24  to  30  inches  in  height  lanes  are  cut  with  a 
mower  in  various  directions  through  it,  generally  north-west  to 
south-east.  In  these  lanes  the  coops  are  ]3laccd,  and,  as  a  result, 
the  young  turkeys  have  all  the  benefit  of  fresh  ground  and  of 
sunshine,  and  at  the  same  time  the  wind  sweeps  completely 
over  them.  A  further  benefit  is  that  the  hens  will  be  found  to 
strip  the  heads  of  the  grass,  which  the  chicks  devour  greedily. 
For  older  birds  he  frequently  has  oats  planted,  and  the  ears  are 
consumed  whilst  in  a  green  state  in  the  same  manner.  The 
period  of  cooping  is  about  eight  weeks,  when  the  red  usually 
begins  to  appear  on  the  heads,  and  by  this  time  the  coo])s  are 
moved  gradually  towards  the  perches  or  trees,  when  it  is  found 
that  both  the  mother  and  her  l)rood  begin  to  roost  there.  Prac- 
tically, by  that  time  the  difficulties  of  tiu'key-raising  are  at  an 
end,  for  with  the  appeaiancc  of  the  red  upon  the  heads  the 
birds  are  much  hardier  than  was  the  case  previouslJ^  The 
treatment  in  summer  is  comparatively  simple,  as  the  birds 
roost  either  in  the  trees  or  in  the  house  previously  described. 


TURKEYS  AS  FARM  STOCK  343 

In  some  districts  where  foxes  and  other  enemies  abound,  it  is 
necessary  to  take  special  steps  to  protect  the  birds.  To  this 
end,  if  the  birds  are  kept  in  the  open,  the  earth  around  the  trees 
and  under  the  roosts  is  thickly  strewni  with  gas-lime  and  asa- 
foetida,  the  pungent  odour  of  which  is  generally  sufficient  to 
keep  marauders  from  the  birds  without  doing  any  harm  to  them. 
The  gas-lime,  however,  must  be  renewed  as  frequently  as  is 
necessary,  otherwise  loss  \vill  result. 

Feeding. — Stock  turkeys  may  be  fed  in  the  same  manner  as 
prescribed  for  ordinary  fowls,  but  we  must  not  forget  that  they 
obtain  a  large  amount  of  green-stuff  and  natural  food  during 
their  foraging  expeditions,  and  that  supplied  to  them  should  be 
subsidiary.  It  is  important  in  the  case  of  the  breeders  to  keep 
them  in  good  condition,  for  which  purpose  full  liberty  is  essential. 
The  food  provided  may  be  an\-  of  the  ordinarj^  grains,  but  in 
addition  a  few  peas  or  beans  are  very  helpful,  as  they  are  low 
in  fat  and  in  carbo-hydrates.  It  is  better  to  feed  whole  grain 
than  .soft  food. 

Young  turkeys  are  first  fed  on  hard-boiled  egg,  chopped  fine, 
with  boiled  rice  and  soaked  stale  bread,  or  rice  simmered  in 
milk.  The  rice  should  be  mixed  when  quite  soft  with  sifted 
oatmeal,  Spratt's  meal,  or  ground  oats,  until  it  is  crumbly  moist. 
They  should  be  fed  five  or  six  times  in  the  day,  the  first  feed  to 
be  as  soon  as  possible  after  daylight,  and  the  last  about  six 
o'clock  in  the  evening.  When  a  week  or  ten  days  old,  gradually 
change  the  food,  introducing  barley-meal  or  ground  oats  mixed 
with  middlings,  also  buckwheat  or  wheat  (the  latter  shoidd  be 
boiled),  and — most  important  of  all — plenty  of  young  onions 
choppeel  fine.  Any  kinel  of  tender  green  food  is  useful,  but 
onions  are  most  valuable.  Young  clover,  or  lettuce,  or  elanele- 
lion,  or  nettles,  can  all  be  used  with  advantage.  As  soon  as  the 
birds  have  "  shot  the  red,"  they  may  be  fed  upon  green  oats, 
wheat,  buckwheat,  and  barley,  varieel  with  boiled  wheat  elried 
off  with  barley-meal.  The  great  requisites  for  successful  tiirkey- 
rearing  are — (1)  a  dry,  comfortable  house  and  run;  and  (2)  gocel 
and  proper  feeding.  On  cold  or  wet  days  mix  a  little  seasoning  ■ 
in  the  soft  fooel,  and  give  every  day  for  the  first  three  months  a 
little  choppeel  meat  or  Spratt's  crissel.  Bone-meal  or  fresh 
bones  shoulel  be  mixeel  with  the  food,  anel  there  should  be  a 
plentiful  supply  of  grit.  It  is  necessary  to  move  the  coop  every 
day.  or  the  grounel  will  become  tainted.  When  the  young  birds 
are  about  a  fortnight  old,  let  the  hen  out  of  the  coop  for  about 
an  hour  a  elay.  which  may  be  gradually  extendeel  in  time. 

A  elry  summer  is  most  harmful  to  the  turkey  raiser,  for  thep 


344  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

the  supply  of  natiiral  food  and  of  green  food  is  very  scanty. 
Under  these  conditions  a  fuller  diet  is  essential,  chiefly  in  the 
direction  of  a  more  plentiful  supply  of  green  food.  Those  who 
have  plenty  of  woodland  will  find  a  hot  summer  less  harmful 
than  where  the  land  is  more  open,  as  the  cool  shade  of  the  trees 
prevents  the  growth  thereon  being  burnt  up  to  the  same  extent. 
It  is  frequently  noted  that  at  Christmas  turkeys  run  smaller  in 
size  than  if  the  summer  has  been  cool  and  moist. 

Turkey  Poults. — ^When  in  America,  I  was  interested  to  note 
that  a  considerable  trade  during  the  summer  is  done  in  what  are 
called  "  turkey  poults  " — that  is,  young  turkeys  killed  when 
about  ten  weeks  old,  weighing  3  to  4  pounds,  at  which  age  they 
are  very  flesh}^  indeed  and  fine  in  flavour.  The  price  realized 
was  four  to  six  shillings  each,  which  ought  to  leave  a  large  profit. 
I  learnt  that,  as  there  is  a  considerable  demand  for  these,  many 
turkey  breeders  are  accustomed  to  hatch  a  much  larger  number 
than  they  desire  to  rear  for  autumn  sale,  killing  off  all  beyond 
such  as  are  intended  for  Thanksgiving  and  Christmas,  and  thus 
considerably  enhance  their  returns.  I  cannot  but  think  that,  if 
these  young  turkeys  were  offered  for  sale  in  Britain,  they  would 
be  very  popular  indeed,  and  a  great  impetus  be  thus  given  to 
this  branch  of  poultry  husbandry. 

Fattening. — ^Upon  arable  farms  turkeys  should  be  fed  upon 
the  stubbles,  as  they  are  splendid  foragers,  which  means  a  great 
reduction  of  cost  for  food.  Such  specimens  as  are  intended  for 
use  or  sale  as  stock  birds  will  continue  to  be  fed  in  the  same  way 
as  other  stock  poultry ;  but  if  they  are  to  be  fatted,  it  is  desirable 
to  get  them  into  good  condition,  which  can  best  be  accomplished 
by  putting  them  on  to  growing  roots  or  cabbages. 

This  treatment  is  continued  until  about  November  1,  after 
which  time  they  are  fed,  as  soon  as  liberated  in  the  morning,  with 
soft  food,  usually  consisting  of  ground  oats,  or  barley  and  wheat 
meals.  When  satisfied,  they  wander  off  to  the  fields  until 
feeding-time  in  the  afternoon,  when  they  are  jjrovided  with  all 
the  food  they  care  to  eat.  About  November  20 — that  is,  five 
weeks  before  Christmas — begins  the  final  stage  of  the  process. 
The  turkeys  are  put  up  to  fatten  in  a  dry,  comfortable  shed, 
which  must  be  large  enough  for  the  number  of  birds  to  be  ac- 
commodated. For  this  purpose  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  59  is 
the  best  type.  Broad  perches  are  used,  which  must  not  be  more 
than  3  feet  above  the  ground.  These  sheds  are  better  if  pro- 
vided with  open  yards.  Food  and  water  are  placed  in  troughs 
conveniently  situated,  and  away  from  the  perches.     When  put 


TURKEYS  AS  FAR]\I  STOCK  345 

up  to  fatten,  the  turkeys  are  given  all  the  food  they  will  eat. 
The  morning  feed  consists  of  barley-meal,  wheat-meal,  buck- 
wheat-meal, or  ground  oats.  Farmers  who  have  good  customers 
and  produce  the  best  birds  mix  the  meals  with  soured  skim-milk, 
and  give  milk  to  drink  instead  of  water — an  inexpensive  addi- 
tion, and  one  which  considerably  improves  the  flesh.  Although 
not  much  used,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  addition  of  a  little 
pure  fat — about  J  ounce  per  diem — to  the  soft  food  is  highly 
beneficial,  softening  the  flesh.  Cooked  potatoes  can  also  be 
added  with  advantage.  The  afternoon  feed  consists  of  whole 
barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  and  a  little  maize,  and  these  are  more 
easily  digested  if  steamed  or  soaked  in  hot  water.  When  fully 
satisfied,  all  food  should  be  removed,  the  troughs  emptied  both 
morning  and  evening,  and  washed  after  the  morning  meal  of 
soft  food.  In  every  case  there  must  be  a  plentiful  supph'  of 
coarse  grit  and  sand  available  to  the  fowls,  and  a  little  slaked 
lime  or  old  mortar  will  be  an  improvement.  Without  grit  the 
turkeys  cannot  possibly  digest  their  food  properly,  and  without 
effective  digestion  flesh  production  will  never  be  complete.  A 
supply  of  coarsely  powdered  vegetable  charcoal  should  be  pro- 
vided. Turkeys  can  be  crammed  by  machines,  as  are  fowls; 
but  this  process  is  not  necessary. 

Killing  and  Dressing. — ^The  usual  method  of  killing  a  turkey 
is  to  first  fasten  the  legs  and  wings  with  soft  string,  which  must 
be  strong  enough  to  bear  the  weight.  By  means  of  that  fasten- 
ing suspend  it  to  a  beam,  head  downwards,  so  that  the  head  will 
fall  about  midway  on  the  operator's  body.  Pass  the  left  arm 
round  the  turkey,  so  that  its  tail  will  point  behind.  Take  its 
head  in  the  right  hand,  with  fingers  under  the  throat,  and 
thumb  at  the  base  of  the  skull;  now  give  a  sharp,  sudden,  strong 
jerk  downwards,  and  a  .sharp  twist  upwards  and  sideways,  and 
death  will  be  instantaneous,  though  there  may  be  considerable 
muscular  exertion  for  a  time.  If  it  is  thought  desirable  to 
bleed,  that  can  be  secured  by  cutting  the  throat;  but  this  must 
be  done  at  once.  Turkeys  can  also  be  killed  in  the  same  way  as 
fowls,  already  described. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  PRESERVATION 

The  growth  within  recent  years  of  demand  for  and  consump- 
tion of  eggs  has  been  phenomenal  in  nearly  every  country,  more 
especially  those  wherein  industrial  and  commercial  developments 
have  taken  place  to  the  greater  extent.  As  a  consequence,  this 
stimulus  to  increased  production  has  led  to  adoption  of  methods 
which  were  at  one  period  scarcely  contemplated.  What  may  be, 
termed  "  factory  "  sj^stems  have  been  tried  in  many  countries, 
and  are  receiving  a  greater  amount  of  attention  than  ever  before. 
These  are  referred  to  in  the  earlier  chapters.  My  present  pur- 
pose is  to  consider  the  questions  involved  in  detail,  in  order  to 
show  what  progress  can  be  recorded,  together  with  the  prospects 
of  further  development.  It  must  be  admitted  that  up  to  the 
present  time  the  advance  made  has  not  proved  equal  to  antici- 
pations formed,  for  reasons  which  are  stated  below — that  is, 
when  we  regard  the  question  as  a  commercial  proposition,  in 
which  the  relation  of  cost  in  production  to  returns  is  the  de- 
termining factor.  No  industry  can  be  permanently  successful 
except  the  margin  affords  a  living  profit.  That  is  the  problem 
awaiting  solution. 

Sources  of  Egg-Supply. — Experience  in  what  may  be  termed 
"  producing  countries  "  shows  that  practically  the  only  profitable 
method  of  egg  production  is  in  association  with  general 
agriculture,  either  by  farmers  or  small  occupiers.  The  few 
sporadic  attempts  made  to  establish  special  egg  plants  have  failed. 
In  the  consuming  countries  the  last-named  have  contributed  a 
greater  volume  of  supplJ^  Even  these,  except  in  association 
with  sale  of  breeding  stock,  etc.,  have  not  proved  successful. 
It  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  in  every  country  the  main  source 
of  egg-supply  is  the  ordinary  farm,  and  that  specialized  produc- 
tion provides  for  but  a  small  moiety  of  the  national  require- 
ments. In  the  United  Kingdom  the  latter  is  probably  not  more 
346 


EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  PRESERVATION         347 

than  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  consumption,  inchisive  of  si;ch  as 
are  prccluced  by  fowls  in  the  hands  of  fanciers,  amateurs,  urban 
and  suburban  residents,  and  those  who  operate  upon  intensive 
lines. 

The  main  sources  of  supply  are,  therefore — 

1.  General  Farms,  upon  which  no  poultr^^  specialization  is 
attempted.  That  there  has  been  considerable  advance  in  this 
direction  within  late  years  is  apparent,  both  as  to  number  and 
nature  of  fowls  kept  and  to  methods  adopted.  From  what  is 
stated  in  Chapter  II.,  it  is  evident  that  the  capacity  of  the 
country  is  far  from  being  reached.  Under  such  farm  conditions 
the  cost  of  production  is  at  the  minimum.  Even  though  the 
average  fecundity  may  be  considerably  less  than  where  more 
intensive  methods  are  adopted,  the  profit  is  substantial.  For 
that  reason  I  have  devoted  the  greater  part  of  my  time  and 
thought  to  promote  increased  production  on  extensive  lines 
as  part  of  general  farming. 

2.  Special  Poultry  Farms. — On  these  there  is,  and  must  be, 
a  greater  or  lesser  measure  of  intensification,  which  gives  rise 
to  difficulties,  apart  from  the  greatly  increased  cost  of  production, 
for  which  as  yet  no  solution  has  been  found.  Something  has  been 
done,  more  especially  by  introduction  of  scratching  sheds.  I 
believe  that  more  can  be  accomplished  in  the  future,  probably 
b}^  a  complete  and  entire  dissociation  of  operations  in  breeding 
the  pullets  and  producing  the  eggs.  Upon  present  lines — 
namely,  intensively  breeding  as  well  as  intensively  keeping 
during  the  laying  period  of  life — I  am  more  than  doubtful  as  to 
the  ultimate  issue.  In  this  direction  there  is  much  to  be  learnt 
ere  we  can  hope  to  see  any  clear  light. 

3.  Cottagers  and  Allotment  Holders. — Whilst  production  under 
these  conditions  is  individually  small,  it  is  considerable  in  the 
aggregate,  and  might  be  very  much  greater.  In  this  case,  also, 
the  cost  is  small  and  the  margin  satisfactory.  Every  facility 
should  be  afforded  to  this  class.  Those  who  hinder  or  prohibit 
the  keeping  of  poultry  in  rural  districts  by  cottagers  or  agri- 
cultural labourers,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  deserve  the  severest 
condemnation  for  their  tyrannical  action. 

4.  Urban  and  Subvrban  Residents. — Here,  again,  the  number 
of  fowls  kept  may  be  individually  small,  yet  the  total  is  great. 
Urban  and  suburljan  poultry-keepers  mainly  consume  the  eggs 
]iroduced  in  their  own  households,  so  that  these  do  not  enter  into 
the  ordinary  trade.  That,  however,  is  in  it.self  a  very  important 
contribution  to  the  national  supj)ly.  As  opportunities  increase, 
which  must  be  the  case  when  our  cities  and  towns  are  reorganized 


348  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

on  sounder  lines,  this  branch  will  advance,  althoTigh  it  will  never 
become  a  great  factor  in  feeding  our  people. 

Improvements  in  Egg  Production. — That  there  have  been  con- 
sidera])le  developments  in  the  average  production  of  eggs  by 
hens  can  be  freely  accepted.  It  is  true  that  exceptional  pro- 
ductiveness has  always  been  known,  as  records  abundantly 
testify.  That  in  itself  is  not  of  moment.  What  we  have  to 
regard  is  the  average  production  of  an  entire  flock,  not  what  a 
few  will  do  in  this  way.  If  the  latter  can  be  used  in  the  breeding- 
pen  as  a  means  of  raising  the  former,  then  their  value  is  increased 
a  hundredfold.  Consecpiently,  to  know  which  are  the  better 
layers  is  essential.  My  opinion  is  that  the  greater  average 
production  referred  to  is  due  to  introeluction  of  better  laying 
races  than  formerly  found,  when  the  fowls  were  of  a  heavier 
type.  In  this  respect,  the  influence  exerted  by  Mediterranean 
and  American  races  has  been  verj^  great  indeed.  What  has  now 
to  be  done  is  to  raise  the  average  egg  production  of  our  fowls 
as  well  as  to  increase  the  number  of  layers.  It  is  in  that  direc- 
tion efforts  have  been  mainly  directed  within  recent  years, 
though  not  as  yet  with  the  permanent  results  hoped  for.  Fre- 
cpiently  some  progress  has  apparently  been  made,  but  it  was  of 
a  temporary  character.  My  own  view  is  that  breeders  are  in 
too  great  a  hurry.  They  have  sought  to  accomplish  in  a  year  or 
two  what  would  need  a  cycle  of  time,  if  even  it  were  then  pos- 
sible. They  have  to  learn  how  to  make  haste  slowly.  The  lure 
of  the  200-egg  hen  has  led  them  astray.  They  have  failed  to 
realize  that  the  hen  which  is  the  heaviest  layer  may  be  the  least 
desirable  as  a  breeder,  anel  does  not  possess  the  power  of  trans- 
mitting this  equality.     Upon  that  question  more  is  said  below. 

Factors  in  Egg  Production. — ^W^hatever  the  method  adopted — 
Avhether  extensive,  intensive,  or  semi-intensive — ^there  are  cer- 
tain factors  which  must  be  taken  into  account,  each  of  which 
has  its  place.  Probably  there  are  others  iniknown  to  us.  I  do 
not  discuss  the  question  at  great  length,  for  the  reason  that 
actual  knowledge  is  limited,  and  many  observations  and  experi- 
ments are  as  yet  incomplete.  Hence  positive  knowledge  cannot 
be  claimed.  Views  long  helel  are  undergoing  a  process  of  re- 
consideration, whilst  new  theories  are  being  tested.  It  is  at 
present  largely  a  epiestion  of  ebb  anel  flow. 

There  are,  however,  certain  factors  which  have  made  for  im- 
provement, in  some  cases  to  a  lesser  extent  than  might  have  been 
hoped  for.     These  are  briefly  dealt  with  below. 

As    already    inelicated,  an    uneloubted    improvement    in   the 


EGG  PRODUCTION  AKD  PRESEKVATION         349 

average  egg  production  upon  farms  has  taken  place  within  the 
last  three  decades.  To  a  large  extent  that  is  due  to  introduction 
of  lighter-bodied  races  which  are  naturally  prolific,  and  which, 
by  then-  adaptability  to  new  environment  and  responsiveness  to 
good  treatment,  have  proved  of  great  value.  Racial^,  therefore, 
these  have  helped  in  the  direction  indicated.  At  the  same  time, 
individual  selection  has  also  been  more  carefully  carried  out, 
and  also,  by  getting  rid  of  older  hens  in  a  systematic  manner, 
instead  of  keeping  for  years,  the  average  jaroduction  has  been 
raised.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that,  when  a  hen  is  bred  and  fed 
for  heavy  egg  production,  her  jDeriod  of  profit  over  the  cost  of 
maintenance  does  not  usually  exceed  three  j^ears.  As  a  rule 
she  is  most  prolific  in  the  first  breeding  season,  decreasing  by 
about  25  per  cent,  in  the  second,  and  to  a  like  degree  in  the 
third  3'ear,  in  each  of  which  latter  she  is  nioie  valuable  as  a 
breeder.  That  an}'  progression  which  may  be  made  will  depend 
largely  upon  racial  and  individual  selection  cannot  be  doubted. 
A  further  influence  which  has  operated  in  the  same  direction 
is  the  improvement  of  environmental  conditions.  Mcdcm 
poultry  houses  are  vastly  superior  to  those  formerly  in  use. 
Instead  of  the  close,  crowded,  ill- ventilated  roosting-placcs  at 
one  time  general,  adoption  of  spacious  scratching  sheds,  open- 
fronted,  light,  and  airy,  has  done  much  to  improve  fecundity. 
Upon  that  jjoint  references  are  made  in  Chaj^ter  XI.,  to  which, 
however,  may  be  added  that  an  adequate  supply  of  oxygen  is 
essential  to  the  complete  digestion  of  food,  and  that  with  the 
larger  amount  of  nutritive  elements  required,  as  the  number  of 
eggs  produced  is  increased,  the  consumption  of  that  element  is 
necessarily  laiger. 

The  effect  of  changed  conditions  is  also  stimulative  in  this 
direction,  though  that  is  not  always  the  case.  Most  changes, 
however,  are  favourable.  It  is  often  found  that  production, 
either  of  eggs  or  of  flesh,  is  enhanced  when  transference  takes 
place  from  one  country  or  one  district  to  another — at  any  rate, 
for  the  first  two  or  three  generations,  when  the  influence  appears 
to  lose  its  efiect  to  some  extent.  That  explains  to  a  degree  why 
a  breed  is  usually  more  prolific  in  a  new  environment  than  was 
the  case  in  its  original  habitat.  If  that  is  correct,  it  would 
strengthen  the  practice  of  regularly  obtaining  fresh  stock. 

Feeding  exerts  a  powerful  influence,  and  may  be  beneficial. 
Excess  of  food  tends  to  reduction  of  fertility  and  also  of  fecundity. 
If  plain  and  containing  the  egg  constituents  without  an  undue 
amount  of  fat,  the  instinct  of  fowls  may  be  trusted  to  determine 
quantity.     U])on  this  aspect  of  the  question  our  knowledge  is 


350  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

superficial  as  yet,  although  some  progress  has  been  made.  Fre- 
quently food  is  supplied  in  a  form  which,  by  tempting  the  appe- 
tite, hinders  production.  Even  where  that  is  not  the  case,  it  is 
possible  to  increase  the  number  of  eggs  at  a  cost  which  makes 
the  doing  so  unprofitable. 

Above  all  is  the  question  of  constitutional  vigour.  Weakly 
hens  are  sometimes  good  layers.  Where  that  is  the  case  they 
usually  consume  more  food,  so  that  the  expense  is  enhanced.  If 
used  as  breeding  stock,  the  progeny  will  assuredly  suffer,  making 
for  the  degeneracy  referred  to  in  Chapter  IV. 

Unexhausted  Capacity  of  Hens. — An  idea  has  been  generally 
l)revalent  that  a  hen  could  not  lay  more  than  about  600  eggs 
during  her  whole  period  of  life.  If  she  produced  a  larger  inunbcr 
in  her  first  or  second  year,  the  ovaries  would  be  more  rai)idly 
exhausted ;  if  fewer,  then  she  might  continue  to  be  i)rofitable  much 
longer.  Whence  this  theory  arose  need  not  concern  us.  That 
it  has  had  considerable  acceptance  is  undoubted.  Dr.  Raymond 
Pearl  has  clearly  shown*  that  it  has  no  basis  whatever.  Pro- 
fessor James  Dryden,  of  Oregon,  records  that  one  of  his  White 
Leghorn  hens  laid  664  eggs  in  three  years — namely,  first  year, 
240  ;  second,  222  ;  third,  202 — and  that  in  another  case  691 
eggs  were  laid  in  four  years.  Dr.  Pearl  mentions  a  Leghorn  hen 
with  a  total  of  969  eggs  in  seven  years — 1902,  105  eggs;  1903, 
163;  1904,  188;  1905,  159;  1906,  160;  1907,  133;  and  1908,  111; 
thus  averaging  u^J wards  of  138  eggs  per  annum. 

These  figures  apply  to  eggs  actually  j^roduced.  What  is  of 
importance  is  whether  there  is  any  latent  capacity  ujion  which 
breeders  may  hope  to  ch-aw.  Until  recently  no  data  was  available 
in  this  direction.  In  the  report  of  the  Maine  Station  referred 
to.  Dr.  Pearl  records  observations  made  by  Miss  Maynie  R. 
Curtis  as  to  the  number  of  oocj^tes,  or  ovules,  visible  to  the  naked 
eye,  found  in  fifteen  hens  killed  after  laying  had  commenced, 
to  which  were  added  the  number  of  eggs  already  produced,  the 
winter  production,  and  the  discharged  follicles,  the  latter  of 
which  indicate  that  many  oocytes  are  discharged  that  do  not 
form  eggs.     (See  table  on  p.  351.) 

From  the  table  is  seen  that  the  number  of  odcytes  in  the  nine 
Plymouth  Rocks  averaged  1,51977;  in  the  four  White  Leghorns, 
2,47575  ;  in  the  Cornish  Game,  1,550  ;  and  in  the  cross-bred, 
2,000.  The  variations  of  individuals  in  the  two  leading  breeds 
are,  however,  very  great,  indicating  that  there  is  no  fixity. 
What  we  learn  is  that  the  latent  egg  capacity  in  all  these  hens 
was  very  great. 

*  Kejiort  of  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  l'J12. 


EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  PRESERVATION         351 

Upon  the  observations  made  Dr.  Pearl  says:  "  The  data  now 
in  hand,  even  at  the  very  lowest  valuation  w^hich  may  be  jolaced 
upon  them,  indicate  clearly  that  there  must  be  some  other  factor 
than  the  anatomical  one  involved  in  the  existence  of  different 
degrees  of  actual  fecundit}^  in  the  domestic  fowl.  It  clearly  is 
the  case  from  that  table  that,  when  one  bird  has  a  winter  record 
of  twice  what  another  bird  has,  it  is  not  because  the  first  has 
twice  as  many  oocytes  in  the  ovary.  On  the  contrary,  it  appears 
that  all  birds  have  an  anatomical  endowment  entirely  sufficient 
for  a  very  high  degree  of  fecundity,  and,  in  point  of  fact,  quite 
equal  to  that  possessed  by  birds  w^hich  actually  accomplish  a 
high  record  of  fecundity.  Whether  or  not  such  high  fecundity- 
is  actually  realized  evidently  depends,  then,  upon  the  influence 
of  additional  factors  beyond  the  anatomical  basis.  It  is  reason- 
able to  supiiose  that  these  factors  are  physiological  in  nature." 


Number  of  Visible  Oocttes  ix  Ovaries. 

Breed. 

Date            Date 
hatched.        killed. 

1 

Total 
Xunibcr 
of  Eggs 

laid 
1.1  Life. 

■Winter 

Pro- 
duction. 

Dis- 
clurgid 
Follicles. 

Toi.-il 
Visible 
Oocytes. 

i 

I'.UO.             I'Jll. 

Bailed  Plymouth  Rock. . 

June    1    Mar.  28 

10 

3 

17 

1,226 

,,             ,,             ,.     .  . 

.,      2      „      30 

10 

0 

12 

1,666 

.. 

„        l!      „       10 

7 

0 

8 

914 

,,             ..             .... 

.,       2      „      14 

17 

5 

12 

1,174 

.,     . . 

April  28 

April   4 

34 

3 

49 

2,306 

,,             ,,             ,,     . . 

June    2 

Mar.  24 

10 

0 

23 

1,194 

,,             ,,             .,     .  . 

„      2 

„     24 

15 

0 

17 

2,101 

„     .. 

May  19 

„     17 

19 

5 

24 

1,576 

1909. 

1910. 

,,             ,,     •• 

Mar.  30 

July     7 

23 

0 

21 

1,521 

\\'liitc  Lcglioni    . . 

May   18 

Doc.  20 

198 

54 

75 

2,452 

„     28 

„      15 

197 

32 

217 

3,605 

„     21 

„      13 

10 

0 

11 

1,701 

,, 

June  14 

„     22 

2 

0 

43 

2,145 

Coniitih  Indiau  Ciamo     . . 

April  21 

1910. 

July  12 

1911. 

52 

13 

54 

1,550 

Cross- bivd 

Mar.  31 

Mar.  20 

124 

lot) 

50 

2,000 

Parental  Influence. — At  one  period  the  common  practice 
among  farmers  and  ordinary  poultry-keepers  was  to  introduce 
among  their  general  flocks  of  fowls  pure -bred  males.  When 
carried  out  upon  a  systematic  basis — which  was  very  seldom 
—  the  effect  was  considerable.  Where  it  failed  was  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  males  were  selected  for  racial  characters 
rather  than  inherent  productiveness,  and  that  arbitrarj'  changes 
of  breed  took  place,  frequently  in  accordance  with  fashion  or 


352  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

fads.  As  a  result,  apart  from  increased  vigour  due  to  crossing, 
the  influence  upon  fecundity  was  small  as  a  permanent  factor. 
It  may  be  pointed  out  that,  in  the  breeding  of  farm  animals  of 
all  kinds,  the  male  is  regarded  as  more  than  half  the  strain,  and 
that  the  greater  efforts  for  improvement  are  in  that  direction. 

Then  came  the  time  of  the  trap-nest,  by  introduction  of  which 
the  supremacy  of  hens  in  resjject  to  productiveness  was  at  once 
accepted,  almost  without  question.  Records  obtained  in  this 
manner  were  startling  in  the  extreme,  revealing  the  fact  that 
variability  in  fecundity  was  greater  than  had  been  thought. 
Pullets  bred  from  the  same  parents,  at  the  same  time,  and  treated 
in  the  same  manner,  were  found  to  lange  to  an  enormous  extent 
in  the  number  of  eggs  individually  produced.  It  was  at  once 
assumed  that  elimination  of  the  drones,  and  breeding  from  the 
most  prolific,  was  the  true  method  of  rapidly  advancing  the 
average  of  the  whole.  Results,  aj)parently,  for  a  time  justified 
this  assumption.  Unquestionably,  imjarovements  were  effected 
for  two  or  three  years,  in  some  cases  longer.  Then  reaction  took 
place,  more  especially  where  operations  were  on  a  larger  scale, 
and  averages  fell  to  or  below  the  original  mean  of  the  race. 
This  was  not,  however,  always  the  case,  as  indicated  by  what 
has  been  accomplished  in  the  hands  of  a  few  breeders  in  Europe, 
America,  and  Australia.  Wliere  that  has  been  true,  it  is  evident 
an  equal  amount  of  selection  has  taken  place  with  male  birds 
chosen  as  breeders,  sons  of  hens  which  were  heavy  layers.  In 
that  direction  we  should  probably  find  explanation  of  the  suc- 
cess attained.  My  own  view  is  that  the  great  mistake  has  been 
in  using  for  breeding  purposes  the  excessive  layers.  It  is  almost 
an  invariable  rule  that  the  extreme  or  exceptional  individual,  in 
which  any  quality  is  found  developed  to  the  highest  point,  has 
not  the  power  of  transmitting  this  quality  to  its  progeny,  and 
that  as  a  breeder  it  is  of  less  value  than  those  which  approximate 
to  the  mean  of  the  race.  All  the  time  a  tendency  to  regression 
is  present.  Any  weakening  of  natural  vigour  due  to  abnormal 
't  production,  by  reduction  of  the  overstrained  force,  makes  for 
that  regression.  In  my  judgment  that  is  where  a  serious  mistake 
has  been  made  within  recent  years. 

Dr.  Pearl's  Investigations. — ^\Miat  must  be  termed  the  failure 
of  the  trai)-ncst  to  accomplish  all  that  was  anticipated,  due  to 
unwarranted  reliance  upon  its  records,  and  to  the  use  of  hens 
exhausted  by  excessive  production,  although  such  records  are 
essential  and  valuable  in  the  extreme,  has  led  to  investigations 
regarding  the  problem  of  fecundity,  which,  whilst  incomplete, 
promise    to    help    in    finding    a    solution,    luiless    they,    again. 


EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  PRESERVATION         353 

are  not  carried  to  an  extreme.  In  this  work  Dr.  Raymond  Pearl, 
of  Orono,  Maine,  occupies  the  leading  position.  His  researches 
form  the  most  notable  contribution  to  poultry  husbancky  hitherto 
made.  Operating  on  extensive  lines,  and  with  records  covering 
several  years,  the  material  available  has  enabled  him  to  take 
broad  views  of  the  subject. 

For  present  purposes  it  will  be  sufficient  if  a  brief  summary 
is  given  of  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  Dr.  Pearl,  which  are 
as  follows : 

The  record  of  fecundity  of  a  hen,  taken  by  and  of  itself  alone, 
gives  no  definite,  reliable  indication  from  which  the  probable 
egg  production  of  her  daughters  may  be  predicted.  Further- 
more, mass  selection  on  the  basis  of  the  fecundity  records  of 
females  alone,  even  though  long-continued  and  stringent  in 
character,  failed  completely  to  produce  any  steady  change  in 
type  in  the  direction  of  selection. 

Fecundity  must,  however,  be  inherited,  since  (1)  there  are 
widely  distinct  and  permanent  (under  ordinary  breeding)  differ- 
ences in  respect  to  degree  of  fecundit}^  between  different  standard 
breeds  of  fowls  commonly  kept,  and  (2)  a  study  of  pedigree 
records  of  poultry  at  once  discovers  pedigree  lines  (in  some 
measure  inbred,  of  course),  in  each  of  which  a  definite,  particular 
degree  of  fecundity  constantly  reappears  generation  after 
generation. 

High  fecundit}'  may  be  inherited  by  daughters  from  their  sire, 
independent  of  the  dam.  This  is  proved  by  the  numerous  cases 
where  the  same  proportion  of  daughters  of  high  fecundity  are 
produced  by  the  same  sire,  whether  he  is  mated  with  dams  of 
low  or  of  high  fecundity. 

High  fecundity  is  not  inherited  by  daughters  from  their  dam. 
This  is  proved  by  a  number  of  distinct  and  independent  lines 
of  evidence. 

A  low  degree  of  fecundity  may  be  inherited  by  the  daughters 
from  either  sire  or  dam,  or  both. 

Results  show  that,  on  the  average,  the  daughters  of  birds 
laying  from  150  to  190  eggs  in  the  year  laid  much  better  than  the 
daughters  of  "  200-egg  "  hens.  This  result  is,  obviously,  of  great 
importance  in  its  relation  to  the  general  question  of  the  effect 
of  selection  for  increased  egg  production. 

Continued  selection  of  highly  fecund  females  alone  could  not 
even  be  expected  to  produce  a  definite  and  steady  increase  in 
average  flock  production.  The  gametic  constitution  of  the  male 
plays  so  important  a  part  in  determining  the  fecundity  of  the 
daughters  that  any  scheme  of  selection  which  left  this  out  of 

2.3 


354  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

aoco\int  was  really  not  systematic  at  all,  hut,  rather,  almo.st 
altogether  haphazard.  It  has  been  re])eatedly  shown  that  the 
same  proportion  of  daughters  of  high  fecundity  maj'  be  obtained 
from  certain  mothers  of  low  fecundity  as  can  from  those  of  high 
fecundity,  proyided  both  sets  of  mothers  arc  mated  to  males  of 
the  same  gametic  constitution. 

To  apply  what  is  stated  aboye,  the  conclusions  arriyed  at  are 
that  the  male  influence  in  egg  production  is  more  potent  upon 
immediate  progeny  than  that  of  the  female,  and  that  selection 
of  such  male  from  a  family  of  heavy  layers  is  of  supreme  im- 
portance. Whether  mating  with  low-fecundity  hens,  eyen 
though  the  first  generation  of  pullets  may  be  good  layers,  will 
not  result  in  reaction,  as  I  suggest  would  probablj^  be  the  case, 
is  a  question  for  further  and  prolonged  investigation.  Breed- 
ing from  abnormal  layers  results  in  rapid  regression.  As  I 
have  stated  previously,  it  is  not  the  heavy  layer  that  is  valuable 
for  breeding,  but  the  parents  from  which  she  sprang. 

Application. — So  far  as  the  great  mass  of  farmers  and  ordinary 
j)oultry-keepers  are  concerned,  from  what  is  indicated  above,  and 
by  complication  of  the  problem,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  these 
can  carry  to  a  conclusion  the  methods  necessarily  to  be  adopted. 
In  the  main,  trap-nesting  is  not  within  the  compass  of  their 
operations,  demanding  more  time  than  they  can  afford  to  give, 
considering  the  possible  returns.  Moreover,  the  need  is  less 
imperative  than  in  the  case  of  specialist  poultrymen,  by  reason 
of  the  fact  that,  as  already  shown,  the  cost  of  feeding  and  pro- 
duction is  much  less  than  must  be  the  case  with  the  latter,  to 
whom  an  increase  of  average  number  of  eggs  may  mean  success, 
and  its  absence  betoken  failure.  Those  who  attempt  egg  pro- 
duction on  wholesale  lines  would  find  it  necessary  to  give  atten- 
tion to  these  problems,  and  attempt  at  least  to  apply  the  methods 
suggested  in  their  breeding.  Where  the  general  poultry-keeper 
will  realize  any  imj)rovement  in  breeding  which  ma}'  follow  their 
adoption  will  be  by  buying  stock,  and  especially  male  birds, 
from  specialists  who  apply  such  methods  in  breeding.  Oppor- 
tunities in  this  direction  are  greater  than  ever. 

What  must,  I  am  firmly  convinced,  ultimately  come  to  pass 
is  a  division  of  operations  between  production  of  breeding  stock 
and  of  eggs  for  eating,  and  that  it  is  inadvisable  to  use  for  re- 
productive purposes  those  hens  which  have  proved  most  prolific 
as  layers.  Only  in  this  way  can  permanency  be  secured.  Mass- 
ing for  egg  production  may  be  possible;  massing  for  breeding 
never  has  been,  or,  I  believe,  will  ever  be.  The  two  must  be 
kept  distinct. 


EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  PRESERVATION         355 

Effect  of  Early  Laying. — ^Within  the  compass  of  every  poultry- 
man,  whether  large  or  small,  is  increase  of  average  egg  production 
by  enhancement  of  winter  egg  production,  for  the  reason  that  hens 
which  lay  most  eggs  at  that  season  during  their  first  year  are, 
almost  without  exception,  those  which  prove  to  be  most  produc- 
tive. In  this  manner  much  may  be  accomplished  without  attempt- 
ing to  enter  into  the  problems  of  breeding  already  referred  to. 

Dr.  Raymond  Pearl  has  based  many  of  his  observations  upon 
fecundity  in  the  winter  period,  on  the  ground  that  "  the  produc- 
tion during  the  months  of  March,  April,  and  May,  is  practically 
worthless  as  an  index  or  measure  of  the  true,  innate,  or  consti- 
tutional fecundity  capacity  of  the  individual.  During  all  these 
months  (in  northern  latitudes)  all  hens  which  are  not  diseased, 
malformed,  infantile,  or  senile,  lay  anywhere  from  well  to  verj^ 
well."  Upon  this  most  important  point  further  valuable 
evidence  is  forthcoming. 

In  the  Twelve  Months  Laj^ing  Competition  of  the  Utility 
Poultry  Club,  1912-13,  wherein  were  600  competing  birds,  the 
following  results,  taken  from  the  published  report,  are  recorded: 

Average  Egg  Production  for  Complete  Year  of  Birds  commencing  to 
LAY  AT  Different  Times. 
Birds    which    laid    10    or    more    eggs    in    first    four    weeks 

(October  15  to  November  12)         187-r> 

Birds  which  laid  at  all  in  first  four  weeks  ..  ..  ..      107-7 

Birds  which  did  not  lay  in  first  four  weeks         ..  ..  ..      Ifil-i 

Birds  which  did  not  lay  in  first  eight  weeks  (October  1.5  to 

December  10) 155-8 

Birds  which  did  not  lay  in  first  twelve  weeks  (October  15  to 

January  7) 106-5 

At  the  Munster  Institute,  Cork,  a  similar  competition  was 
held  in  1912-13.  In  this  case  the  results  are  even  more  sug- 
gestive— ^namely : 

Eight  hens  which  produced  an  average  of  57  eggs  in  first  three 
months  (November,  December,  and  January)  averaged 
in  total  year 200-00 

Eight  hens  which  produced  an  averag^e  of  19-90  eggs  in  first 

three  months  averaged  in  total  year  . .  . .  . .       9fi-25 

Eiglit  hens  which  produced  an  average  of  1-25  eggs  in  first 
three  months  (6  did  not  lay  at  all)  averaged  in  total 
year 47-88 

Other  facts,  doubtless,  had  an  influence  in  all  these  cases. 
The  fact,  however,  is  evident  that  an  increase  of  production  in 
the  winter  period  is  accompanied  by  a  total  increase  for  the 
entire  year.  That  simplifies  the  process  of  selection,  as  it  is  only 
necessary  to  trap-nest  for,  say,  four  months  out  of  the  twelve. 

Trap-Nestirg. — As  a  means  of  determining  the  fecundity  of 
hens,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  data  referred  to  already,  what 


3r)(i  POITLTRY  HUSBANDRY 

is  known  as  the  trap-ncst  is  valuable  and  indispensable.  The 
principle  is  the  same — namely,  the  hen  enters  a  box  with  a  trap 
to  lay  her  egg,  bnt  cannot  get  ont  again  until  released.  By  the 
use  of  leg-rings  or  bands — of  which  the  best  form  is  the  coloured 
celluloid  rings  made  by  Hills  Rubber  Company,  of  Reading, 
Berks,  which  firm  have  devised  a  complete  code  by  ten  colours. 
the  variations  of  which  enable  large  numljers  of  hens  to  be 
distinctively  marked — the  eggs  laid  by  each  individual  lien  are 
credited  to  her  on  forms  prepared  for  that  purpose.  Thus,  tables 
can  be  prepared  .showing  results  for  each  period  of  and  the  entire 
twelve  months.  The  work  entails  labour,  and  should  only  be 
applied  to  selected  birds.  It,  however,  reveals  facts  which  the 
breeder  must  know  h)r  guidance  in  his  breeding  operations. 

Winter  Egg  Production. — In  order  to  obtain  the  best  residts 
in  egg  production,  it  is  most  important  that  winter  laying  be  in- 
creased. Great  numbers  of  the  pullets  hatched  in  this  coimtry 
do  not  begin  operations  until  after  Christmas,  and  thus  the  best 
part  of  the  winter  egg  trade  is  altogether  missed.  It  ought  to 
be  the  ideal  in  the  minds  of  all  poidtry-keepers  to  have  each  indi- 
vidual pullet  laying  by  November  1,  which  can  be  accomplished 
provided  that  the  birds  are  hatched  early  enough,  and  at  the 
same  time  are  reared  in  a  proper  manner.  It  is  impossible  in 
this  connection  to  lay  down  any  hard-and-fast  rule,  becaiise  a 
great  deal  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  breed  kept,  the  class 
of  soil,  and  the  method  of  rearing.  Upon  heavy  soils  chickens 
do  not  grow  so  quickly  as  upon  the  hghter  lands,  and  the  same 
is  true  as  to  the  more  exposed  and  colder  parts  of  the  country. 
In  respect  to  the  different  breeds,  we  can  hatch,  say.  Leghorns 
a  month  to  six  weeks  later  than  Wj^andottes,  and  they  will  com- 
mence laying  before  the  Wyandottes.  Thus,  each  poTxltry- 
keeper  must  experiment  for  himself. 

There  is  another  advantage  which  arises  from  bringing  pullets 
on  early — namely,  that  we  secure  sitting  hens  much  sooner  than 
would  otherwise  be  the  case;  and,  further,  the  following  year 
these  pullets  will  moult  earlier  and  come  into  lay  again  sooner 
than  do  the  later -hatched  specimens. 

The  points  for  breeders  are — (1)  Early  pullets ;  (2)  young  birds; 
(3)  not  to  break  off  sitting  hens  in  the  summer,  as  the  rest  is 
beneficial;  (4)  careful  selection  in  breeding;  and  (5)  the  choice 
of  winter  laying  (general  purpose)  breeds. 

Profit  Attainable. — ^Upon  the  question  of  cost  of  egg  production 
there  are  many  different  opinions.  Up  to  the  present  time 
observations  in  this  direction  are  limited,  and  in  many  cases  not 


EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  PRESERVATION         357 

very  reliable.  Much  must  necessarily  depend  upon  economy  in 
feeding  and  in  management.  Frequently  such  statistics  as  are 
available  are  either  from  small  poultry-keejoers,  whose  house- 
holds sujjply  a  b}^  no  means  small  portion  of  the  food  required, 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  from  those  who  feed  exjoensively,  and  are 
compelled  to  pay  for  labour.  We  have  evidence  to  show  that, 
where  operations  are  conducted  upon  a  sufficiently  large  scale, 
when  the  fowls  are  able  to  forage  for  a  large  part  of  their  food, 
and  grain  and  meal  are  purchased  in  the  cheapest  markets  and 
fed  judiciously,  a  flock  of  hens  can  be  maintained  at  a  cost 
not  exceeding  4s.  to  os.  each  per  amium.  Whatever  expense  is 
incurred  beyond  the  figure  named  is  unnecessary. 

To  pay  such  a  charge,  each  hen  must  produce  in  the  twelve 
months  forty  to  sixty  eggs,  according  to  the  season  of  the  j^ear 
when  laid,  before  profit  can  be  hoped  for.  The  reward  of  the 
poultry-keeper  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  eggs  secured  in 
addition  thereto.  If  the  average  production  is  not  more  than 
sixty  eggs  per  annum,  whilst  there  will  be  no  loss,  gain  will  not 
be  realized.  If  he  secvues  an  average  of  100  eggs  per  annum, 
he  should  find  a  margin  of  3s.  per  hen;  but  if  120  be  the  average, 
4s.  6d.  per  hen  will  reward  his  efforts;  whereas  if  he  secures  an 
average  of  160  eggs,  then  he  may  faM}-  expect  a  profit  of  7s.  6d. 
per  hen.     That  should  be  the  objective  of  every  poultry -keeper. 

In  this  connection  we  have  not  counted  the  cost  of  the  stock. 
If  the  work  is  properly  systematized,  the  laying  hens  should 
practically  cost  nothing.  Upon  a  farm  where  500  laying  hens 
are  bred,  half  should  be  renewed  everj^  J^ear,  and  hence  it  will  be 
necessary  to  breed  oOO  to  600  chickens,  of  which  probably  half 
will  be  pullets.  If  bred  at  the  right  season,  the  cockerels  can  be 
sold  off  at  2s.  to  2s.  6d.  each,  and  that  amount  should  pay  the 
cost  of  rearing  two  birds,  so  that  the  pullets  at  three  to  four 
months  old  will  have  cost  practically  nothing,  and  the  additional 
feeding  to  bring  them  to  the  time  of  profit  will  be  more  than 
compensated  bj'  the  sale  of  the  old  hens. 

Size  of  Eggs. — It  may  be  true  that  "  an  egg  is  an  egg,"  no 
matter  what  its  size,  shape,  coloin-,  or  age,  may  be.  At  the 
same  time,  however,  we  have  to  take  into  account  market  re- 
quirements, and  to  consider  what  is  needed  in  order  to  obtain 
the  best  returns.  This  question  is  discussed  in  the  next 
chapter. 

The  question  arises  as  to  whether  anything  can  bo  done  to 
improve  the  size  of  eggs.  .Some  breeds  of  poultry  naturalh" 
lay  large  eggs,  notably  the  Minorca,  Andalusian,  Dorking,  and 
Scotch  Grey ;  and  in  some  cases  these  eggs  are,  if  anything,  ratner 


358  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

too  large  for  the  trade,  to  which  reference  has  ah-eady  been  made . 
Still,  the  fault  is  on  the  right  side,  and  where  these  breeds  are 
used  pure  or  as  crosses  their  influence  will  help  considerably  in 
the  desu-ed  direction.  Those  classes  of  poultry  which  meet 
market  demand  most  nearly  are  Campines,  Leghorns,  Anconas, 
Houdans,  Plymouth  Rocks,  and  Orpingtons.  Several  of  our 
most  prolific  breeds  of  poultry — notably  the  Hamburgh  and  the 
Wj^andotte — lay  eggs  which  are  distinctly  smaller  in  size. 

There  is,  however,  at  hand  a  method  of  imjiroving  the  size  of 
eggs,  as  it  is  possible  with  every  breed  to  modify  considerably 
the  weight  of  egg,  either  in  a  forward  or  backward  direction. 
The  system  is  a  simple  one — namely,  by  selection  of  the  eggs  for 
hatching.  It  will  be  easily  realized  that  if,  in  order  to  secure 
early  birds — which  in  itself  is  often  a  very  important  point — 
we  take  the  eggs  just  as  they  come,  and  these  be  small,  we 
emphasize  that  tendency,  as  we  are  breeding  from  the  hens 
which  naturally  lay  the  smaller-sized  eggs.  It  ought  to  be  an 
axiom  with  every  poultry-keeper  never  to  set  either  an  ab- 
normally large  or  small  egg,  unless  it  is  intended  to  kill  the 
chickens  at  an  early  age,  when  size  is  of  lesser  importance.  A 
further  tendency  towards  the  perpetuation  of  small-sized  eggs 
is  due  to  the  practice,  which  so  many  people  follow,  of  hatching 
from  eggs  produced  bj^  young  pullets.  This  is  a  mistake,  and,  as 
far  as  possible,  breeding  and  laying  stock  should  be  descended  from 
hens  fully  matured — that  is,  not  less  than  eighteen  months  old. 
Colour  of  Shells. — In  some  home  markets  the  highest  price 
can  always  be  obtained  for  eggs  which  have  a  tinted  shell,  and 
the  best  class  of  traders  find  that  these  eggs  are  almost  constantly 
inquired  for  by  their  customers.  In  spite  of  the  fact,  which  is 
generally  acknowledged,  that  the  colour  of  the  shell  does  not 
indicate  the  quality  of  the  egg,  and  that  a  white-shelled  egg 
produced  under  the  same  conditions  is  as  rich  and  has  an  ecpially 
nutritive  value  as  the  egg  having  a  tinted  exterior,  the  prefer- 
ence indicated  above  must  be  taken  into  account,  otherwise 
— especially  during  the  plentiful  season — the  same  price  cannot 
be  obtained  in  some  markets  for  eggs  which  are  all  white  as  when 
there  is  a  considerable  proportion  of  tinted  shells.  Amongst 
the  best  class  of  consumers,  where  boiled  eggs  are  simply  an  item 
on  the  breakfast-table,  there  can  be  no  question  that  a  nicely 
tinted-shelled  egg  looks  better  in  a  silver  stand  than  one  which 
is  pure  white,  and  appearance  nnist  alwaj^s  be  taken  into 
consideration. 

The   breeds   which   produce   tinted-shelled   eggs   are   without 
exception  sitters,  although  there  are  certain  breeds  wliich  evince 


EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  PRESERVATION         359 

the  maternal  instinct  that  produce  white-shelled  eggs.  The 
following  list  will  show  the  breeds  which  give  tinted  shells 
amongst  those  commonly  kept,  and  they  are  placed  as  far  as 
possible  in  accordance  with  the  depth  of  the  tint: 

Langshans.  Wyandottes. 

Cochins.  Brahmas. 

Plymouth  Rocks.  Faverolles. 

Orpingtons.  Coucou  de  Malines. 

Game.  Rhode  Island  Reds. 

In  addition  to  these,  there  are  other  breeds  which  are  not  kept 
for  egg  production,  notably  the  Indian  Game  and  the  Malay. 
We  must  therefore  look,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the  above  breeds 
to  give  us  the  tinted  shells,  cither  b}^  keeping  stock  pure  or  l)}^ 
using  these  breeds  for  crossing  purposes. 


Preservation  of  Eggs. 

It  is  a  little  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago  that  the  first 
recorded  patent  was  taken  out  for  the  preservation  of  eggs — the 
Jajaie  method  of  lime-water,  which  is  still  largelj^  used.  Since 
that  time  a  multitude  of  other  systems  have  lieen  brought  for- 
ward, some  of  which  have  proved  successful,  but  the  great 
majority  either  offered  no  advantages  over  those  already  em- 
ployed, or  were  commercially  impracticable.  Until  the  problem 
of  enhanced  winter  egg  production  is  solved,  preserved  eggs  we 
want,  and  must  have.  Were  it  not  for  these,  the  prices  of  eggs 
from  Se])t ember  to  Janiiary  would  be  prohibitive. 

Object  of  Preservation. — As  the  spring  has  been,  and  ahvays 
will  be,  the  time  of  year  when  eggs  are  produced  in  the  greatest 
number  and  prices  range  lowest,  the  object  of  preservation  is 
to  transfer  a  portion  of  the  supplies  from  the  plentiful  to  the 
scarce,  from  the  cheap  to  the  dear  season;  not  only  to  secure 
the  higher  rates  then  obtainable,  but  to  avoid  glut  by  removing 
the  surplus.  As  is  stated  in  my  "  Report  on  the  Poultry  In- 
dustry in  Denmark  and  Sweden,"  "  Not  only  is  the  trade  in 
preserved  eggs  profitable  in  itself,  but,  by  relieving  the  glut 
during  the  spring,  those  sold  at  that  season  of  the  j'car  command 
much  better  prices  than  if  forty  to  fifty  millions  more  Danish 
were  placed  on  the  market."  It  is  freely  acknowledged  in 
Denmark  that  the  success  achieved  would  never  have  been 
realized  had  not  preservation  been  adopted. 

Who  should  Preserve  ? — Discussion  has  often  arisen  as  to  who 
should  undertake  the  work  of  preservation.     In  many  Conti- 


360  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

ncntal  countries,  in  America,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  at  home, 
this  is  done  by  private  traders  or  companies,  who  purchase  eggs 
as  a  speculation,  hold  them  for  the  necessary  period,  and  sell 
at  such  time  as  they  think  well  to  do  so.  That  the  benefits  to 
producers  are  considerable  is  apparent.  The  enhanced  demand 
thus  secured  has  increased  spring  prices,  which  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  large  quantities  have  been  taken  off  the  market,  and  have 
thus  prevented  the  lower  rates  which  would  otherwise  have  pre- 
vailed. In  connection  with  local  co-operative  societies  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  as  in  Denmark,  preservation  takes  place  in 
the  locality  where  the  eggs  are  jnoduced,  so  that  supplies  can  be 
put  down  at  an  early  date  after  they  are  laid.  When  the  work 
is  undertaken  on  a  large  scale  at  a  few  centres,  the  eggs  are 
drawn  from  a  wide  area,  and,  consequently,  the}'  are  stale  before 
storage  takes  place.  My  observations  in  Europe  and  America 
have  shown  that  frequently  the  eggs  are  from  ten  to  twenty  days 
old  ere  the  process  is  commenced.  Under  such  conditions  results 
can  hardly  be  satisfactory.  Hence  preservation  should  be 
undertaken  by  poultry-keepers  themselves  or  by  co-operative 
depots  or  traders  in  the  immediate  localities  where  the  eggs  are 
produced. 

When  to  Preserve. — ^Much  depends  upon  the  time  of  year  when 
the  eggs  are  put  doAvn.  M}^  advice  has  always  been  to  sell  for 
present  consumj)tion  whenever  a  reasonable  and  profitable 
price  can  be  secured.  Hence  it  is  largely  a  question  of  siirplus. 
Apart  from  the  price,  which  is  an  important  factor,  as  it  is 
useless  preserving  unless  there  is  a  margin  of  profit,  eggs  are 
better  in  everj^  way,  both  as  to  quality  of  contents  and  strength 
of  shells,  during  the  natural  lajang  season.  The  best  months  are 
April  and  May.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  eggs  laid  dming 
those  months  keep  better  than  those  obtained  before  or  after. 
Prior  to  the  middle  of  March,  and  from  June  onwards,  i)rices  do 
not  usually  allow  profit  to  be  secured.  Moreover,  summer  eggs 
seldom  keep  as  well  as  those  laid  in  the  spring,  even  though 
preserved  for  a  shorter  period. 

What  to  Preserve. — ^The  final  result,  so  far  as  quality  is  con- 
cerned, depends  largely  upon  the  method  of  preservation 
adopted,  upon  the  conditions  under  which  the  eggs  are  ke])t 
during  the  entire  period,  and  on  their  treatment  after  they  arc 
taken  out  for  sale;  but,  however  perfect  all  these  may  be,  they 
will  utterly  fail  unless,  when  subjected  to  the  process,  eggs  are 
of  first-rate  quality.  It  is  this  fact  which  is  so  often  forgotten, 
more  especially  by  producers  and  traders  who  operate  on  a  small 


EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  PRESERVATION         361 

scale.  A  really  new-laid  egg,  provided  the  conditions  are  favovir- 
able,  will  come  out  six  months  later  excellent  for  cooking 
purposes,  having,  however,  lost  something  of  its  pristine  value; 


whereas  a  second-quality  egg  will  emerge  with  even  a  greater 
loss,  and  therefore  inferior  by  so  much  to  the  first.  A  stale  egg 
will  probably  come  out  bad,  totally  unfit  for  food.  Hence  it  is 
all-important  that  the  eggs  selected  for  this  purpose    shall   be 


362  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

really  fresh,  chosen  because  they  are  full,  strong  in  the  shell, 
well  formed,  and  sound  in  every  way.  The  slightest  flaw  or 
crack  will  be  fatal.  Every  egg  should  be  carefully  and  rigidly 
tested  before  it  is  preserved,  and  all  those  which  cannot  grade 
as  new-laids  should  be  sold  for  immediate  consumption.  As 
already  stated,  it  is  in  this  respect  that  many  Continental  and 
American  eggs  fail. 

A  further  point  is  that  infertile  eggs  keeji  better  than  those 
which  contain  a  living  germ.  That  has  been  known  for  2,000 
years,  and  later  experience,  more  especially  in  connection 
with  sui:)plics  from  South  Australia,  have  fully  confirmed  its  truth. 
If  farmers  and  others  would  keep  separate  breeding-pens,  using 
eggs  from  these  for  hatching,  removing  the  males  running  with  the 
ordinary  laying  stock  from  March  onwards,  such  eggs  as  are  pre- 
served would  turn  out  much  better  than  is  the  case  at  present. 

Where  to  Preserve. — The  temperature  to  which  the  eggs  are 
subjected  during  the  preservation  period  will  exert  considerable 
influence  for  good  or  evil.  It  should  be  remembered  that  they 
have  to  pass  through  the  hotter  months  of  the  year,  when  the 
tendency  in  all  buildings  above-ground  is  to  rise  above  the  safe 
point,  unless  they  are  kept  in  cold  storage.  More  than  40°  F. 
means  change  in  the  egg  contents,  and  the  higher  the  tempera- 
ture the  more  rapid  the  change.  For  that  reason  preservation 
generally  takes  place  in  cellars,  either  wholly  or  partially  below- 
ground,  and  any  windows  or  ventilators  should  be  on  the  north 
or  north-west  side,  so  that  the  sun's  rays  may  not  find  access^. 
One  preserving  plant  which  I  visited  at  Aarhus,  in  Denmark, 
was  entirely  under-ground,  and  with  a  mass  of  buildings  above 
and  on  the  south  side,  so  that,  entering  on  a  summer's  day,  it 
felt  almost  like  an  ice-house.  Here  the  eggs  are  accommodated 
in  large  cement  tanks,  each  holding  about  70,000.  These  tanks 
are  about  10  feet  square  and  5  feet  deep.  The  cellars  are  well 
ventilated,  and  practically  the  temperature  is  equable  all  the 
time.  This  is  typical  of  many  cellars  I  have  visited  on  the 
Continent,  both  in  Eastern  and  Western  Europe.  Eggs  may  be 
kept  in  galvanized  iron  tanks,  each  holding  about  5,000.  These 
are  convenient  where  quantities  are  not  very  large,  as  they  are 
soon  filled,  and  thus  are  not  disturbed  until  the  time  comes  for 
sale.  They  cost  about  25s.  each.  As  this  sj^stem  grows,  it  will 
be  found  profitable  to  build  special  cellars  for  the  work,  as  in 
Denmark  and  elsewhere. 

Methods — 1.  Buttering. — Those  who  only  intend  to  keep  the 
eggs  a  few  weeks  for  home  consumption  will  find  it  enough  if 


EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  PRESERVATION         363 

they  butter  the  eggs — that  is,  rub  a  little  fresh  butter  over  the 
shell,  and  store  in  a  cool  place.  Or  they  maj^  use  glycerine  or 
any  sweet  fat  for  the  purpose,  taking  care  that  the  shell  is 
coated. 

2.  Lime-Water. — ^This,  the  oldest  method  used,  is  probabl}'^ 
employed  more  than  all  other  s^^stems  combined.  The  great 
bulk  of  Continental  eggs  received  in  water  are  "  limed."  It 
has  also  the  practical  merit  of  being  the  least  expensive.  For 
large  ojoerations  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  it  is  to  be 
preferred,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  shells  are  thickened  by  de- 
posits of  lime  thereon.  An  advantage  to  retailers  and  consumers 
is  that  the  fact  of  "  pickling  "  is  revealed  b}^  the  rough  shells. 
The  solution  is  formed  by  mixing  freshly-slaked  lime  with  water 
— say  1  pound  to  2  pounds  of  the  lime  to  each  5  gallons  of 
water,  stirring  it  well  two  or  three  times  a  day  until  the  whole 
forms  a  milky  fluid,  when  1  pound  of  salt  is  added  to  the  above 
quantities.  After  standing  a  few  hours  to  settle,  the  liquid  is 
poured  into  the  vats  or  tanks  or  tubs,  whichever  are  used,  when 
they  are  ready  for  the  eggs.  It  may  be  observed  that  the  virtue 
of  the  lime,  as  of  the  silicate  of  soda  referred  to  later,  is  to  kill 
all  life  in  the  water,  which  thus  keeps  sweet  and  i)ure.  The 
quantity  required  is  not  so  great  as  might  be  imagined,  and  if 
the  tank  is  one-quarter  filled  at  first,  more  can  be  added  as 
required.  The  eggs  should  not  be  less  than  4  inches  from  the 
top,  so  that  they  may  be  entirely  covered  by  the  liquid,  which 
forms  a  skin  or  film,  and  prevents  dust  or  dirt  reaching  the 
eggs. 

3.  Water-Glass. — For  smaller  operations  the  system  which  has 
become  most  popular  is  by  means  of  what  is  popularly  called 
"  water-glass,"  which  is  a  solution  of  silicate  of  scda,  the  value  of 
which  for  this  purpose  was  discovered  some  years  ago  by  a  Ger- 
man chemist.  The  results  obtained  are  excellent — quite  equal 
to  those  of  lime-water,  Avithout  thickening  or  roughing  the  shell 
to  the  same  degree.  The  shells  come  out  clean  and  fresh -looking. 
The  solution  is  generalfy  sold  of  full  strength,  and  a  5  per  cent, 
mixture  is  about  right — that  is,  5  per  cent,  of  water-glass  to 
95  per  cent,  of  water.  The  latter  should  be  pure,  and  preferably 
boiled,  mixed  hot,  but  allowed  to  become  quite  cold  before  use. 
It  has  been  found  that  a  stronger  solution  affects  the  flavour 
of  the  eggs.  A  desirable  plan  is  to  fill  the  tanks  three-quarters 
full  with  a  solution  consisting  of  f  pound  of  water-glass  to  each 
gallon  of  water,  and,  when  the  eggs  are  all  in,  add  to  the  top  a 
solution  of  1  j)ound  water-glass  to  the  gallon.  This  method  is 
more  expensive  than  lime-water.     Small  quantities  bought  in 


364  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

time  will  cost  about  Id.  per  score  eggs;  but  as  the  silicate  of 
soda  can  be  purchased  in  bulk  at  about  8s.  per  hundredweight, 
for  large  quantities  the  cost,  apart  from  labour  of  preparation, 
of  preserving  fluid  will  work  out  at  Is.  per  1,000  eggs.  Lime- 
water  in  many  districts  would  not  cost  more  than  Id.  to  l|d.  per 
1,000. 

4.  Cold  Storage. — I  do  not  need  to  say  much  under  this  head- 
ing, in  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  Canada  and  the  United  States 
it  is  largely  and  almost  universally  adopted.  It  requires  to  bo 
carried  out  by  speculative  traders  or  companies,  and  on  a  large 
scale.  Nor  have  the  results  been  satisfactory,  as  there  is  a  strong 
tendency  to  the  formation  of  moulds,  and  eggs  preserved  in  this 
way  go  bad  rapidly  after  they  are  brought  into  the  normal 
temperature.  Something  has  been  done  to  improve  this  weak- 
ness, but  when  eggs  have  to  be  retailed  out  in  half-dozens  other 
methods  of  preservation  are  superior.  The  best  temperature  at 
which  to  keep  the  eggs  is  29°  to  30°  F.  There  must  be  a  constant 
circulation  around  them  of  pure,  fairly  dry  air,  and,  when  re- 
moved, it  seems  to  be  necessary  to  change  from  one  room  to 
another,  each  slightly  warmer. 

5.  Other  Metlwds  need  not  concern  us  here.  A  method  has 
been  recently  introduced  by  which  air  is  exhausted  from  the  egg, 
which  is  then  dipped  into  hot  paraffin  wax.  That  is  only  suit- 
able for  adoption  on  a  large  scale,  as  a  special  plant  is  required, 
and  the  patent  is  in  jDrivate  hands.  Such  "sealed"  eggs  as  I 
have  seen  were  very  good  indeed. 

How  Long  to  Keep. — ^The  time  of  sale  of  preserved  eggs  is 
from  September  to  Januarj^  and  hence  six  months  is  the  average 
period  for  which  they  are  kept.  Observations  made  by  Mr.  J. 
Henrick,  B.Sc,  of  the  Aberdeen  University,  have  shown  that 
with  water-glass  longer  keeping  causes  changes  which  would 
make  the  eggs  undesirable  as  food.  In  America  much  trouble 
has  arisen  from  holding  eggs  over  to  another  year.  That  is 
undesirable  in  every  wa}',  and  eggs  should  be  consumed  in  the 
autumn  following  their  preservation,  whether  the  price  realized 
be  profitable  or  otherwise. 

After  Preservation. — ^When  lime-water  or  water-glass  is  used, 
the  tanks  can  be  emptied  rapidly  by  use  of  a  perforated  scoop 
with  turned  edges,  because  the  liquid  acts  as  a  buffer,  preventing 
breakages  if  handled  gently.  The  operators  should  use  india- 
rubber  gloves  and  gauntlets.  As  they  are  taken  out,  the  eggs 
are  well  washed  in  running  water,  and  then  placed  upon  wire 
trays,  which  may  be  stacked  after  draining  to  diy,  which  soon 


EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  PRESERVATION  365 

takes  place  if  they  are  in  a  good  current  of  air.  Finally,  before 
packing,  they  should  be  rigidly  tested,  so  as  to  remove  all  that 
are  bad  or  doubtful;  and  in  all  cases  they  should  be  sold  as 
preserved  eggs. 

Infection  of  Eggs. — Modern  systems  of  preservation,  more 
especially  by  cold  storage,  have  revealed  moulds  and  bacteria 
which  develop  under  these  conditions.  The  most  serious  of 
these  are  known  as  "  red  rots  "  and  "  black  rots,"  the  former  of 
which  is  supposed  to  be  the  result  of  exposure  to  cold  and  damp, 
such  as  a  wet  nest  or  packages,  and  by  bacterial  penetration  cf 
the  shell.  It  is  very  contagious,  one  egg  so  affected  spreading 
infection  to  others.  Black  rot  is  thought  to  be  a  result  of  ovarian 
or  embryonic  action.  Moulds  are  due  to  vegetable  growth 
arising  in  low  temperature.  All  eggs,  therefore,  should  be 
tested  in  strong  light  before  preservation,  and  any  showing 
reddishness  in  the  yolk  be  rejected.  Also,  testing  should  take 
place  before  sale. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

DISPOSAL  OF  PRODUCE 

Production  of  any  class  of  food  is  but  part  of  the  work  of 
feeding  our  great  populations.  Equally  important  is  that  cf 
organization,  so  that  supplies  may  be  brought  to  the  consunur 
in  the  best  possible  condition,  in  the  most  expeditious  manner, 
and  at  the  least  cost.  The  complexity  of  our  modern  life,  with 
vast  aggregations  of  people  unable  to  produce  their  own  food- 
supplies,  have  at  once  added  to  the  difficulties  of  the  problem, 
increased  cost  by  reason  of  the  services  rendered,  and  at  the 
same  time  created  a  demand  which  formerly  was  unknown. 
As  a  consequence  of  changed  conditions  and  inadecj^uacy  of  home 
supplies  of  eggs  and  poultry,  the  imports  of  these  two  products 
have  grown  enormously.  What  is  true  in  the  United  Kingdom 
is  equally  the  case  in  Germany,  and  apparently  is  becoming  so 
in  the  United  States  of  America.  In  Chapters  I.  and  II.  the 
question  is  discussed,  and  need  not  be  further  dealt  with,  as  the 
facts  stated  are  generally  recognized. 

A  Producer's  Question. — ^Manufacturers  recognize  that  organi- 
zation for  the  sale  of  their  goods  is  essential  to  complete  success, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  keep  the  control  within  their  own  hands. 
That  explains  the  important  place  occupied  by  trading  members 
of  the  community.  A  good  salesman  can  command  his  own 
price,  which  he  well  earns.  Such  was,  and  is  to  a  considerable 
extent,  the  weak  point  of  our  present  agricultural  system.  The 
Danes  solved  the  problem  by  the  adoption  of  co-operation;  the 
French,  Russians,  and  later  the  Dutch,  by  private  traders. 
What  we  have  to  recognize  is  that  marketing  is  a  producer's 
question  first  and  last.  Any  loss  arising  as  a  result  of  bad 
methods  falls  upon  him,  to  the  greatest  extent  where  his  opera- 
tions are  small,  and  he  has  no  alternative  outlets  available. 
Those  who  undertake  the  work  of  distribution  must  be  re- 
munerated for  their  services.  Consumers  will  not  pay  more 
360 


DISPOSAL  OF  PRODUCE  367 

than  what  they  think  an  article  is  worth,  preferring  to  go  with- 
out. Hence  the  return  which  the  poultry-keeper  will  receive 
for  his  goods  is  determined  by  the  ultimate  value,  less  the  inter- 
mediary expenses  and  profits.  As  that  value  is  largely  a  ques- 
tion of  quality  and  conformity  with  market  requirements,  a 
study  of  the  latter  is  necessary.  The  object  of  all  engaged  in 
poultry  husbandry  shovild  be  to  obtain  the  highest  possible 
returns,  which  can  alone  be  by  supplying  the  higher  qualities 
and  meeting  the  requirements  referred  to.  Until  this  side  of  the 
work  is  generally  reorganized,  poultry-keeping  will  not  realize 
its  full  development.  That  there  has  been  a  steady  rise  in  the 
standard  of  quality  in  eggs  anel  poultry' — the  former  especially, 
as  the  neeel  was  greatest — within  recent  years,  is  unquestionable. 
That  there  is  much  yet  to  be  accomplished  is  equally  correct. 

The  Egg  Trade. — Taking  eggs  in  the  first  place,  the  ekmand  is 
a  very  variable  one.  There  are,  however,  principles  which  may 
be  generally  applied.  What  has  not  been  sufficiently  recognizee! 
is  their  nature,  which  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

Eggs  form  a  perishable  product. 

Eggs  rapidly  deteriorate,  varying  somewhat  in  accorelance 
with  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  kept;  but  nothing  can 
prevent  deterioration. 

The  egg  contents  change  in  accorelance  with  the  time  they  are 
kept. 

Eggs  decrease  in  value  every  day  after  they  are  laiel. 

Not  every  new-laid  egg  in  point  of  time  is  a  first-quality  egg. 

Appearance,  as  in  everything  else,  has  considerable  money 
value  in  eggs. 

That  in  some  districts  the  quality  standard  is  lower  than  in 
others  is  recognized.  Where  that  is  the  case  prices  are  corre- 
siiondingly  lower.  As  freshness  is  largely  determineel  by  the 
perioel  which  elapses  between  the  time  of  laying  and  when  finally 
sold  to  the  consumer,  in  which  distance  to  travel  and  methods 
adopteel  in  marketing  have  great  influence,  it  is  evielent  why  j^ro- 
ducers  within  a  reasonable  raelius  of  the  point  of  consumption 
can,  if  the  system  adopted  be  favourable,  supply  a  quality 
which  is  impossible  to  those  at  a  greater  elistance.  Negligence, 
however,  sacrifices  a  large  portion  of  this  advantage.  Apart 
from  preserved  eggs,  which  come  under  another  category,  distance 
is  a  supreme  factor,  anel  explains  why  values  decrease  as  the 
radius  of  supply  increases.  Of  imported  supplies,  the  following 
are  the  minimum  periods  in  which  eggs  can  reach  our  markets 
from  the  time  of  laying:  French  and  Dutch, 4  to  6  days;  Danish, 
7  to   9  elays;   Italian  anel  Austro -Hungarian,   14  to  21   days; 


368  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Russian,  28  to  40  da5"s.  Except  those  received  from  the  first  two 
countries  named,  no  imported  egg  can  possibly  bo  of  the  first 
quality. 

Grades  of  Eggs. — In  the  better  retail  trade  eggs  are  classified  as 
follows : 

1.  New-laid,  3  to  5  daj's  old. 

2.  Breakfast,  6  to  10  days  old. 

3.  Fresh,  non-preserved,  which  may  be  n  month  old  or 

more. 

4.  Cookers,  in  autumn  generally  preserved,  or  brought 

from  the  more  distant  countries. 

5.  Nondescript,  inclusive  of  small  eggs  and  preserved. 

Only  Nos.  1  and  2  are  fit  for  boiling,  which  is  the  supreme 
test  of  quality.  No.  2  are  largely  used  for  poaching  or  frying. 
An  egg  that  would  be  objectionable  if  cooked  in  the  shell  can 
be  used  when  broken  out,  by  reason  of  escape  of  the  gases  accumu- 
lating therein  as  a  result  of  greater  age. 

Quality  Test  for  Eggs. — The  following  notes,  which  were  first 
published  in  the  Illustrated  Poultry  Record  (December,  1910), 
and  afterwards  widely  disseminated  as  a  leaflet,  show  what  are 
the  methods  of  determining  quality  in  an  egg : 

1.  Size. — Many  eggs  weighing  If  ounces  are  of  equal  nutritive 
value  to  others  which  weigh  2j  ounces,  as  the  larger  volume 
is  almost  entirely  water.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
whilst  an  egg  scaling  at  1|  ounces  is  only  6"25  per  cent,  less  in 
weight  than  one  turning  at  2  ounces,  and  probably  contains  as 
much  actual  nutriment,  its  retail  value  is  12  to  15  per  cent, 
less,  and  generally  is  sold  for  cooking.  Consumers  demand,  and 
retailers  must  supply,  eggs  which  each  weigh  at  least  2  ounces 
— i.e.,  15  lb.  for  120,  or  over  ;  and  in  some  markets  17  lb.  eggs 
are  preferred. 

2.  Shape. — In  this  respect  there  are  considerable  differences. 
Some  eggs  are  long  and  narrow,  others  almost  as  broad  as  thej'- 
are  long,  while  still  more  are  between  the  two.  The  last-named  are 
preferred,  though  this  is  not  of  great  moment,  so  long  as  the 
shell  is  even  and  not  abnormal.  Anything  in  the  direction  of 
malformation  militates  against  the  value. 

3.  Evenness  and  Strength  of  Shell. — ^Roughness  of  the  outer 
envelope  is  undesirable.  In  the  autumn  and  winter  a  rough 
shell  generally  denotes  preservation  by  lime-water.  Therefore 
the  smoother  the  better.  A  strong,  thick  shell  may  mean  that 
the  proportion  of  edible  matter  to  the  total  weight  is  less  than  is 
the  case  when  the  calcareous  covering  is  thin;  but  such  is  more 


DISPOSAL  OF  PRODUCE 


369 


than  compensated  by  the  fact  that  there  is  lesser  evaporation 

if  the  shell  is  close  and  thick,  and  the  carrying  quality  is  greater. 

4.  Bloom. — A  new-laid  egg  has  a  bright,  shiny  coating  to  the 

shell,  which  is  called   "  bloom,"  and  experienced  buyers  can 


Fig.  62.— Size  of  Eggs. 


tell  the  age  more  or  less  by  the  appearance.  For  that  reason 
washing  is  undesirable.  A  dirty-shelled  egg  is  useless  for  the 
best  trade. 


24 


370  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

5.  Colour  of  Shell. — ^WTiilst  it  may  be  tnie  that  there  is  no 
appreciabl}^  greater  vahie  in  a  tinted  than  in  a  white-shelled 
egg,  there  is  an  undoubted  demand  value  in  some  markets. 
Consumers,  and  therefore  retailers,  like  a  fair  proportion  of 
brown  eggs,  as  they  are  called,  and  prefer  to  deal  with  those 
who  can  supi)ly  them.  It  is  thought  in  the  scarcer  months  that 
these  are  less  likely  to  be  preserved. 

What  is  within  an  egg  is  of  the  gieater  importance,  because 
in  this  way  is  determined  the  real  value — the  actual  food. 
Unless  that  is  in  the  best  condition,  all  else  goes  for  nothing. 
The  buyer  may  be  misled  by  oiitward  appearance,  but  the 
ultimate  judgment  depends  upon  the  egg  contents.  That  the 
quality  can  be  gauged  through  the  shell  is  unquestionable.  For 
that  reason,  testing  by  light  is  universal. 

6.  "  New-Laidness." — By  this  is  meant  that  the  contents 
shall  be  as  nearly  as  jjossible  what  they  were  at  the  time  when 
voided  by  the  hen.  If  an  egg  is  boiled  when,  say,  one  or  two  days 
old,  it  is  found  that  the  white  does  not  inspissate  to  the  extent 
that  it  will  later,  but  remains  milky,  clothy,  and  flaky.  The 
elements  which  make  for  that  state  disappear  in  three  to  five 
days,  when  the  egg  betokens  its  age.  Something  has  gone  which 
influences  flavour  and  quality.  Such  eggs  do  not  command  the 
top  prices. 

7.  Fulness. — One  sign  of  "  new-laidness  "  is  that  the  egg  fhall 
be  full,  by  which  is  meant  that  the  air-space  is  scarcely  visible. 
I  have  made  observations  as  to  the  evaporation  of  eggs,  and 
find  that,  under  normal  conditions,  out  of  120  eggs,  1  egg  contents 
disappeared  in  the  first  6  days,  2  egg  contents  disappeared  in 
13  days,  3  in  21  days,  4  in  29  days,  5  in  36  days,  6  in  47  days, 
and  7  in  60  days,  so  that,  as  a  matter  of  weight,  this  is  impor- 
tant. The  test  was  made  in  cool  weather.  In  the  hot  months, 
or  if  kept  in  a  warm  place,  the  loss  would  be  much  greater.  Ex- 
amination by  light  reveals  the  size  of  air-space,  and  if  that  is 
large  the  value  is  depreciated. 

8.  Brightness. — B}^  this  is  meant  clearness  of  contents  through 
the  shell,  represented  by  dull  opaqueness.  There  must  be  no  spots 
which  represent  moulds,  or  dark  areas,  general^  betokening 
development  of  the  germ,  or  bacterial  colonies  in  the  white. 

9.  The  White  and  the  Yolk  Ligaments  (chalazse)  must  be  strong 
and  firm,  and  also  the  yolk  be  round.  A  flat  j'olk  means  age. 
These  are  not  revealed  until  the  shell  is  broken. 

10.  Colour  of  Yolk. — ^The  best  eggs  have  a  reddish-yellow  yolk, 
not  pure  yellow.  Again,  that  is  unascertainable  until  the  shell 
is  broken. 

1 1 .  Infertile  eggs  keep  better  than  those  which  have  been  im- 


DISPOSAL  OF  PRODUCE  371 

pregnatecl.  I  am  convinced  that,  if  infertile  eggs  could  be 
guaranteed  for  market  purposes,  they  would  soon  win  favour. 
Large  producers  may  easily  secure  this  result,  and  small  ones 
also  if  they  set  themselves  to  do  so. 

Li  this  connection  it  should  be  mentioned  that  the  value  of 
an  egg  is  fixed,  not  on  the  farm  where  it  is  laid,  not  in  the  local 
packing-room,  but  by  its  condition  when  delivered  to  the  con- 
sumer. An  egg  which  might  be  of  first  qualitj'  in  Norfolk,  or 
Somerset,  or  Wales  to-day,  may  be  only  secoiul  cpiality  in 
London  or  Manchester  to-morrow. 

Value  of  Eggs  as  Food. — ^Weight  for  weight,  an  egg  contains 
more  nutriment  than  any  other  class  of  food.  There  is  no  bone 
or  gristle,  and  the  proportion  of  water  is  no  greater  than  in  meat. 
The  only  non-edible  portions  are  the  shell  and  outer  membranes. 
A  dozen  eggs,  costing  as  much  as  1  pound  of  meat,  will  yield  a 
greater  amount  of  nutritive  elements.  That  is  one  reason  for 
rapidly-increasing  demand.  Flesh  appears  to  be  more  feeding 
than  eggs,  due  to  the  fibre  which  it  contains.  That,  however, 
has  no  food  value.  Moreover,  eggs  can  be  served  in  scores  of 
different  ways,  presenting  the  most  palatable  forms.  They 
enter  into  the  composition  of  innumerable  dishes.  The  main 
factor  is  to  recognize  their  perishability,  and  to  market  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  Where  that  is  the  case,  a  profitable  outlet  is  always 
available.  Our  chief  danger  at  the  present  time  is  checking 
consumption  by  too  rapid  advance  in  prices. 

Sale  of  Eggs. — Conditions  have  to  be  considered  in  relation 
to  methods  adopted.  Over  very  large  areas  of  Great  Britain — 
that  is,  in  residential,  manufacturing,  and  commercial  dis- 
tricts— local  production  is  but  a  small  moiety  of  immediate  con- 
sumption. In  the  Metropolitan  area,  between  800  and  900 
millions  of  eggs  are  eaten  annually,  of  which,  probably,  not  Jj;  per 
cent,  are  produced  within  the  immediate  radius.  In  Lancashire, 
although  poultry  husbandry  is  a  verj'  important  branch  of  farm- 
ing, especially  upon  the  small  holdings  which  are  so  numerous 
in  that  county,  and  the  more  intensive  methods  of  poultry- 
keeping  have  advanced  rapidly  upon  allotments,  consumption 
is  five  times  as  great  as  production.  The  same  is  true  in  many 
other  areas.  Something  like  three-fourths  of  the  population 
of  England  and  Wales  live  in  urban  districts. 

The  methods  usually  adopted  are  as  under: 

Direct  Sale  to  Consumers. — ^That  specially  applies  to  districts 
where  producers  and  consumers  are  contiguous,  and  the  latter 
can  be  easily  reached  by  the  former,  or  the  two  can  meet  in  local 


372  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

markets.  To  an  increasing  extent  this  system  is  impossible  as 
density  of  population  advances. 

Sale  by  Producers  lo  licluilers. — 'i'liis  niclhud  is  that  of  greatest 
advance,  and  in  many  cases  entails  the  least  cost  for  distribution. 
Where  supplies  are  sufficient,  and  of  the  quality  required  in  the 
great  centres  of  population  and  at  holiday  resorts,  it  yields  an 
excellent  return. 

Local  Traders. — ^\\^here  the  volume  of  produce  is  individually 
small,  and  must  be  bulked  to  reduce  cost  of  transit,  the  pi-oducer 
is  unable  to  reach  distant  markets,  and  it  would  not  pay  him  to 
undertake  that  task.  Therefore  an  intermediary  must  be  found 
between  him  and  the  distributing  retailer.  In  some  cases  this 
works  satisfactorily,  in  many  others  not,  especially  as  rings  are 
often  formed  to  keep  down  prices,  and  there  is  no  alternative 
outlet.  The  great  hindrance  to  progress  is  that  all-round  rates 
are  paid,  so  that  improvement  of  quality  is  checked. 

Co-Operation. — In  Denmark  the  egg  trade  has  been  largely 
built  up  on  a  co-operative  basis,  and  the  same  system,  to  a  lesser 
extent,  is  adopted  in  Ireland,  Holland,  and  Scotland.  Under 
certain  conditions — that  is,  where  no  great  local  demand  exists — 
the  same  system  has  proved  successful  in  England  and  Wales. 
Such  failures  as  have  occurred  were  chiefly  owing  to  a  large 
existing  local  demand,  and  that  prices  did  not  allow  sufficient 
scope  for  increase.  As  a  competitive  factor  co-operation  has 
proved  of  the  greatest  value,  compelling  traders  to  improve  their 
methods.  Also,  by  throwing  responsibility  for  quality  upon 
producers,  it  has  had  a  great  educational  influence. 

Auction  Sales. — ^Regular  sales  by  public  auction  have  been 
established  at  a  few  centres,  where  buyers  collect  to  purchase. 
These  are,  however,  more  perfectly  organized  in  the  Netherlands, 
usually  upon  a  co-operative  basis.  Eggs  are  sold  as  from  their 
place  of  origin,  so  that  reputation  is  an  asset;  and  by  the  use  of 
a  mechanical  apjmratus,  fully  described  in  my  "  Report  on  the 
Poultry  Incbxstry  in  Holland,"  the  work  is  simplified.  Probably 
this  sj^stem  will  find  adoption  to  a  greater  extent. 

Testing. — All  high-quality  eggs  are  tested  for  quality,  generally 
by  the  retailer,  so  far  as  native  supplies  are  concerned.  The 
place  of  test  should  be  as  near  the  point  of  production  as  pos- 
sible, and  by  those  who  are  in  close  touch  with  producers,  paying 
for  supplies  in  accordance  with  the  quality.  In  that  case  testing 
ought  to  be  undertaken  by  the  local  trader  or  co  -  operative 
society.  The  object  is  not  merely  to  discern  bad  and  stale  eggs, 
but  to  divide  the  best  from  the  better,  the  better  from  the  good, 
as  each  have  individual  values. 


DISPOSAL  OF  PRODUCE 


375 


For  that  purpose  a  dark  room  or  cupboard  is  required. 
Shutters  to  the  former  and  heavy  curtains  forming  the  latter 
will  exclude  light  sufficiently  for  the  purpose. 

The  method  of  testing  is  by  passing  light  thi-ough  the  egg,  so 
as  to  reveal  internal  conditions.  A  powerful  lamp,  gas-jet,  or 
electric  bulb,  is  encased  in  a  black  metal  cone  or  box,  on  the  side 
of  which  are  one  or  more  apertures,  slightly  less  in  size  than  an 
egg.  When  the  last-named  is  revolved  by  hand  against  this 
opening,  the  size  of  air-space  and  general  appearance  are  revealed. 
This  individual  examination  is  the  most  perfect  test. 

In  Denmark  and  elsewhere  strong  lights  are  enclosed  in 
a  well,  the  sides  of  which  are  formed  by  powerful  reflectors. 
On  the  top  fits  a  tray  holding  120  eggs,  so  divided  that 
no  light  can  pass  except 
through  the  eggs.  That  is 
a  more  rapid  method. 

An  apparatus  is  used  in 
Holland  consisting  of  a 
revolving  table  on  which 
are  several  openings,  into 
which  fit  trays  holding  fifty 
eggs  each.  One-fourth  the 
table  is  at  a  time  in  a  dark 
cupboard  for  testing,  there 
resting  over  well  lights,  as 
already  mentioned.  At- 
tendants outside  place  the 
trays  in  position,  and  re- 
move after  testing,  each  lot 
being  passed  into  the  cup- 
board in  turn  by  revolving 
the  table  (Plate  XVIII.). 

By  one  or  other  of  the 
methods  named  eggs  are  assorted  in  accordance  with  their 
respective  qualities.  The  single  test  is  better  than  that  in  mass, 
although  entailing  an  increase  of  labour. 

Grading. — Continental  and  Irish  eggs  arc  shipped  in  large  cases 
holding  twelve  long  hundreds — that  is,  1,440.  The  packing 
material  is  straw  or  wood-wool,  or  both.  As  a  consequence,  the 
eggs  must  be  very  closely  graded,  every  one  being  of  identically 
the  same  size;  otherwise,  as  no  divisions  are  used,  breakages 
would  occur  to  a  very  large  extent.  It  is  necessary  that  each 
egg  shall  be  firmly  held  b}^  the  layer  of  packing  material  above 
and  below.     So  carefully  is  this  work  done  that  eggs  are  carried 


Fig.  G3. — -Candling  Eogs. 


S76 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


across  Europe  with  hardly  a  crack.     As  a  rule  there  are  six  grades, 
13  pounds  to  18  jwunds  per  120. 

Where  other  packages  are  used,  as  described  below,  it  is 
enough  to  grade  into  three  sizes:  namel}^  (1)  eggs  17  pounds  per 
120 — that  is,  2^  ounces  each  and  upwards;  (2)  15  pounds  per 
120 — 2  ounces  each ;  and  (3)  under  15  pounds.  The  proportionate 
sale  value  of  the  last-named  is  much  less  than  indicated  bj'  re- 
duction in  weight,  due  to  the  fact  that  these  are  mainly  used  for 
cooking  purposes,  and  not  for  boiling.  At  the  same  time  this 
measure  of  rough  grading  is  most  important  for  another  reason. 
Abnormally  large  and  very  small  eggs  should  be  consumed  at 
home,  and  not  sent  to  market.  A  big  egg  dwarfs  all  others  in 
the  case,  making  these  look  smaller  than  they  are;  whilst  a  small 

egg  spoils  the  appear- 
ance of  the  entire  lot. 
Evenness  in  size  makes 
for  satisfaction. 

Packing. — Where 
eggs  are  sent  short  dis- 
tances, and  especially 
if  forwarded  direct  to 
retailers,  they  are  often 
packed  in  large  baskets 
holding  about  1,200,  or 
less.  There  are  now 
several  forms  of  egg 
boxes  which  are  simple 
and  convenient.  These 
boxes  have  been  greatly 
improved  of  late.  One  form  which  is  largely  in  use  is  fitted 
with  square  cardboard  sections,  and  has  wood-wool  between 
the  layers.  Renewals  of  fittings  and  wood-wool  are  very  inex- 
pensive, and  it  is  light  and  easily  handled.  The  contents  can 
be  rapidly  unpacked,  which  is  most  important.  The  Dairy  Outfit 
Company,  of  King's  Cross,  London,  make  a  series  of  excellent 
boxes  (Fig.  64)  with  felt  layers,  which  carry  the  contents  most 
securely  and  are  very  largely  used.  Many  other  forms  are  on  the 
market,  meeting  the  requirements  already  named. 

One  most  important  matter  is  that  the  packing  shall  be  clean 
and  sweet.  Eggs  are  very  susceptible  to  external  influences, 
and  if  they  are  packed  in  dirty  or  fusty  material  they  will 
assuredly  be  affected  thereby.  Inattention  to  this  matter, 
or  the  sending  out  of  dirty  eggs,  due  to  want  of  clean  straw  in 
the  nests,  will  reduce  their  value. 


Fig.  64.— Pocock  Egg  Box. 


DISPOSAL  OF  PRODUCE  377 

Table  Poultry. — In  considering  the  sale  of  poultry,  especially 
of  the  better  qualities,  it  is  important  to  remember  that  the  trade 
varies  considerably.  Even  in  London,  where  the  highest  prices 
are  realizable,  the  trade  of  poulterers  differs  in  accordance  with 
their  position.  Much  higher  prices  are  obtainable  in  the  West 
End  and  a  few  suburban  districts  than  elsewhere,  and  supplies 
must  be  graded  in  accordance  with  the  recpiiiements  of  retailers. 
At  some  provincial  centres  good  prices  can  be  obtained;  but  it 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  first,  or  even  second,  quality  birds 
will  not  at  present  sell  remuneratively  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
country.  Hence  it  is  found,  on  the  one  hand,  that  fatters  send 
their-  best  specimens  to  London;  whilst  provincial  poulterers, 
when  they  require  such  birds,  order  them  through  the  Metro- 
politan markets.  With  eggs,  our  object  should  be  to  get  into 
direct  touch  with  retailers  without  any  intermediaries,  in  order 
to  avoid  unnecessary  profits  and  to  insure  rapidity  of  transit. 
In  respect  to  chickens  and  ducklings,  it  is  found  more  profitable 
to  send  supplies  to  salesmen  in  London,  as  they  are  able  to  grade 
the  fowls  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  poulterers, 
and  can  thus  obtain  higher  returns  than  if  sent  direct  to  the 
trader.  The  plan  here  suggested  is  found  fairly  satisfactory 
by  fatters  of  chickens  in  Sussex  and  West  Kent,  and  the  duckers 
in  Bucks  and  Beds.  In  provincial  markets,  and  especially  for 
lower  grade  birds,  selling  direct  to  the  traders  is  to  be  recom- 
mended.    Their  trade,  however,  is  not  for  higher -class  specimens. 

Markets  for  Chickens. — A  most  important  point  is,  How  are 
the  chickens,  raised  in  districts  where  fattening  establishments 
do  not  exist,  to  be  marketed  ?  When  lean  birds  are  selling  in 
Sussex  at  2s.  9d.  to  3s.  6d.  each,  they  are  often  to  be  purchased 
in  other  districts  at  from  Ls.  6d.  to  2s.  6d.  each.  Ultimately  we 
may  hope  to  find  fattening  extended  greatly,  and  the  work  of 
finishing  off  completed  where  the  birds  are  reared.  In  the  mean- 
time our  object  should  be  to  bring  fatters  into  touch  with 
breeders. 

Except  in  the  fattening  districts,  where  the  collection  is  very 
well  organized,  and  the  whole  countryside  is  scoured  b^^  higglers 
buying  uj)  birds,  traders  frequently  do  not  obtain  a  sufficient 
supply,  nor  is  there  regularity.  A  buyer  may  go  into  a  local 
market,  and  one  week  find  a  considerable  number  of  chickens, 
whilst  the  next  week  there  may  be  hardl}'  any  at  all.  Hence 
the  business  is  speculative  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  he  nuist 
allow  a  good  margin  for  profit — greater  than  should  be  the 
case,  or  would  be  so,  if  he  were  sure  of  securing  a  proper  supj)ly 
— ^to  the  detriment  of  the  producer. 


378  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

What  we  have,  therefore,  to  consider  is  whether  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  adopt  another  system  in  this  country.  Of  course,  we 
have  markets  in  all  dii-ections,  but  these  are  very  general,  and 
buyers  cannot  tell  what  is  likely  to  be  brought  forward.  In  one 
or  two  of  the  southern  counties  regular  sales  have  been  insti- 
tuted, and  these  undoubtedly  serve  a  good  purpose;  but  the 
system  has  not  sj)read  sufficiently  to  warrant  buj^ers  from  the 
fattenmg  establishments  attending  and  obtaining  a  commen- 
surate supply.  We  must  aim  for  something  on  a  larger  scale. 
Supposing  in  any  district  a  market  is  instituted  of  the  nature 
found  in  Belgium  and  France,  the  wisest  plan  would  be — at 
first,  at  any  rate — to  fix  these  monthly  or  fortnightly,  and  to 
take  steps  for  the  producers  to  attend  in  large  numbers  with 
theii-  fowls  for  sale.  That  is  a  distinctly  better  plan  than  the 
creation  of  another  race  of  middlemen,  because  the  competitive 
spirit  will  be  more  manifested,  and  any  benefit  accruing  will 
go  into  the  pockets  of  the  producers  rather  than  of  the  collector 
or  higgler.  If  a  market  were  held  fortnightly,  and  the  breeders 
all  round  set  themselves  to  have  their  birds  ready  for  the  markets, 
they  would  then  be  able  to  take  them  in  sufficient  quantities, 
and  the  buyers  would  be  very  speedily  able  to  regulate  their 
trade,  having  a  very  clear  idea  as  to  the  number  that  they  were 
likely  to  obtain.  In  fact,  they  would  come  into  touch  with  the 
producers,  and  obtain  a  very  close  estimate  as  to  the  supply 
during  each  season.  Of  course,  in  many  cases  the  bu3'ers  would 
represent  fatteners,  and  thus  the  prices  would  be  distinctly 
better  than  are  met  with  at  the  present  time. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

POULTRY  DISEASES 

In  no  departinent  of  human  knowledge  has  greater  progress 
been  made  within  the  last  fifty  years  than  in  medical  and 
veterinary  science,  consequent  upon  Avhich  not  only  is  there  a 
more  complete  and  scientific  definition  of  disease,  but  a  fuller 
realization  of  the  causes,  together  with  appreciation  of  bacterial 
and  other  inciting  influences,  and,  to  a  lesser  extent,  ability  to 
combat  disease  in  one  way  or  another,  though  in  that  direction 
we  appear  to  be  only  at  the  beginning.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
would  seem  to  be  true  that,  as  a  result  of  greater  aggregation  of 
human  beings  and  animals,  massed  together  in  communities, 
and  more  intensive  conditions  of  life,  the  tendencies  to  develop- 
ment of  disease  are  greater  than  ever.  Such  is  certainly  the 
case  with  poultry,  following  upon  a  vast  increase  of  numbers 
and  other  influences  named  below.  That  in  former  times  there 
were  losses  by  disease  among  domestic  fowls  cannot  be  ques- 
tioned. Inquiries  reveal,  however,  that  these  were  com- 
paratively few  and  isolated.  It  was  not  until  the  numbers  of 
birds-  kept  upon  a  given  place  were  largely  increased,  and 
methods  adopted  which  tended  to  diminution  of  natural  vigour 
in  fowls,  and  therefore  lessened  ability  to  repel  attacks  of  bac- 
terial and  parasitic  enemies,  together  with  the  conditions  which 
are  favourable  to  their  rapid  development  and  virility,  that  the 
question  became  of  serious  importance,  combined  with  which 
is  the  economic  value  of  poultry,  now  niuch  greater  and  con- 
stantly advancing,  not  individually  to  the  same  extent  as  col- 
lectively. One  fact  must  ever  be  regarded — namely,  that  power 
to  prevent  disease  may  be  the  determining  factor  as  to  further 
development  of  poultry  husbandry. 

Scientific  Research. — ^During  the  early  days  of  i:)ouItry  hus- 
bandry, empirical  methods  in  the  treatment  of  poultry  diseases 
were  unavoidable,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  scientists  had  not 
370 


380  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

applied  themselves  to  study  of  this  class  of  livestock.  Poultrymen 
had  to  do  the  best  they  could,  and  to  accept  the  consequences. 
Aa  a  result,  it  was  often  thought  wisest  and  cheapest  in  the  long- 
run  to  kill  a  fowl  seen  to  be  sick.  With  advent  of  the  exhibition 
system  and  the  increased  value  of  individual  birds,  greater  atten- 
tion was  given  to  the  question,  equally  in  the  direction  of  cure 
and  prevention.  A  breeder  felt  that  he  was  warranted  in  expend- 
ing money  and  time  in  saving  a  fowl  worth,  perhaps,  several 
pounds,  which  was  not  the  case  when  its  value  was  measured 
by  pence.  To  that  fact  may  be  attributed  the  increased  atten- 
tion given  to  diseases  of  poultry.  With  development  of  poultry 
husbandry  on  more  extensive  lines,  where  whole  flocks  were 
attacked,  probably  involving  loss  over  wide  areas,  the  importance 
of  the  question  was  to  some  extent  realized.  It  became  not 
merel}^  a  matter  of  individiuxls,  but  of  flocks  and  of  communities, 
compelling  attention  on  the  part  of  Government  departments. 
The  first  decided  step  in  this  direction  was  when  the  French 
Ministry  of  Agriculture  instructed  the  late  Professor  Louis 
Pasteur  to  undertake  an  investigation  into  an  outbreak  of  what 
is  known  as  chicken  cholera,  which  was  then  devastating 
the  farms  of  that  country.  That  example  has  been  followed  in 
several  instances,  some  of  which  are  referred  to  below. 

This  subject  has  to  be  considered  in  two  directions:  First, 
diseases  which  are  individual — that  is,  isolated  cases,  either 
single  birds  or  limited  groups — wherein  the  loss  is  apparently 
small,  although  probably  more  wide-reaching  than  is  gener- 
ally supposed,  owing  to  inherent  weakness  transmitted  to  the 
progeny,  thus  making  for  degeneracy  of  the  stock;  and,  second, 
those  forms  of  disease  that  become  epidemics  which  by  dissemina- 
tion cause  great  immediate  loss,  not  merely  on  the  place  of  origin, 
but  bj'  infection  of  considerable  areas.  I  have  seen  several  such 
epidemics  or  their  effects  in  Britain,  L'eland,  America,  Belgium, 
and  Italy,  the  results  of  which  were  disastrous  in  the  extreme, 
involving  an  enormous  amount  of  loss. 

Prevention  the  Main  Object. — ^When  disease  occurs,  except  in 
minor  (•()m])laiii(s,  a  cure  is  frequently  impossible.  In  no  case 
can  it  be  i)rolitabie.  The  small  comparative  value  of  each  unit 
means  that,  ai:)art  from  danger  of  infecting  others,  such  value 
may  speedily  be  expended  by  a  course  of  treatment.  What  has 
to  be  sought  for  is  the  cause,  in  order  that,  by  its  removal,  further 
developments  may  be  prevented.  Frequently  such  cause  cannot 
be  discovered  until  a  vast  amount  of  loss  has  taken  place.  In 
fact,  not  until  the  infection  is  more  general  are  stejDS  taken  to 
investigate  outbreaks.     That  is  always  the  case,  even  with  human 


POULTRY  DISEASES  381 

beings.  Probably  there  is  no  instance  in  which  adequate  pre- 
ventive measures  have  been  adopted  mitil  the  necessary  com- 
pulsion was  ajiplicd  by  disease  in  epidemic  or  other  forms,  in- 
volving great  mortality.  Hence,  it  was  not  until  poultry  hus- 
bandry became  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  expenditure 
of  public  funds  in  the  w^ork  of  investigation,  and  the  labour  of 
scientists  in  this  direction,  that  serious  attempts  were  made. 
For  example,  a  recent  epidemic  involved  the  direct  loss  of  at 
least  £.50,000  within  one  or  two  provinces  of  Belgium  in  a  single 
season,  ruining  many  producers,  and  threatened  with  destruc- 
tion an  important  rural  industry. 

The  time  has  fully  arrived,  therefore,  when  the  question  must 
be  dealt  with  on  broader  lines,  to  which  end  the  co-operation  of 
scientists  whose  training  enables  them  to  pathologically  investi- 
gate diseases  of  poultry,  in  order  that  the  causes  may  be  re- 
moved, is  absolutely  necessar^^  Fortunately,  in  several  coun- 
tries the  services  of  such  men  and  women  are  now  available, 
though  not  to  the  extent  which  is  demanded  by  the  importance 
of  this  question.  That,  however,  is  not  enough.  Whilst  re- 
search into  the  nature  of  disease  and  its  development,  discovery 
of  bacteria  and  parasites  which  are  the  active  and  immediate 
cause,  and  how  these  may  be  combated,  are  of  very  great  value 
and  importance,  that  deals  with  but  part  of  the  subject.  What 
must  be  diligently  sought  for  are  the  contributory  conditions, 
whether  involved  in  breeding,  methods  of  treatment,  environ- 
ment, feeding,  etc.,  in  order  that  prevention  may  be  effective, 
which  should  ever  be  the  main  object  of  all  investigation.  Prac- 
tice and  science  must  act  in  unison.  The  knowledge  of  advanced 
practitioners  who  have  studied  hygiene  and  sanitation,  and  that 
of  investigators  whose  interest  is  in  purely  scientific  research, 
are  equally  necessary.  Without  such  combination  we  shall  not 
attain  effective  methods  of  prevention.  It  is  essential  to  clearly 
state  the  position,  because  some  reports  which  have  been  pub- 
lished as  to  outbreaks  of  disease  are  incomplete,  in  that  they 
stop  at  the  point  where  these  would  be  understood  by  poultrj-- 
keepers,  whose  interest  in  a  disease  is  limited  by  their  desire  to 
avoid  it. 

Contributory  Causes. — ^For  the  reason  that  the  subject  cannot 
any  longer  be  treated  superficially,  in  that  it  is  too  serious  and 
requires  exhaustive  consideration,  I  do  not  propose  to  deal  with 
the  treatment  of  affected  birds,  but  indicate,  as  far  as  our  know- 
ledge goes,  what  are  the  causes  of  disease  in  poultry,  with  such 
methods  of  prevention  as  are  understood.  We  shall  ultimately 
arrive  at  the  stage  when,  as  is  already  the  case  in  some  countries. 


382  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

public  research  stations  will  be  in  operation,  at  which  investiga- 
tions can  be  made,  whether  for  individuals  or  communities,  and 
advice  given,  at  which  the  staff  shall  consist  of  men  who  are 
poultry  pathologists  in  the  true  sense,  in  that  they  have  special- 
ized upon  this  branch  of  livestock.  Up  to  the  present  time 
veterinary  surgeons  have  devoted  very  little  attention  to  poultry, 
because  it  did  not  paj^  them  to  do  so.  The  owner  of  a  horse  or 
a  cow  can  afford  to  pay  an  adequate  fee  for  advice  if  it  is  sick, 
which  fee  would  be  three  or  fo\ir  times  the  value  of  a  hen.  That 
has  been  the  great  difficulty  hitherto.  With  increase  of  numbei  s, 
it  is  a  question  of  flocks  rather  than  of  individuals. 

Hereditary  Influences. — ^It  may  probably  be  true  that  many 
diseases  from  which  fowls  suffer  are  not  directly  transmitted  to 
their  progeny.  As  examples,  chickens  hatched  from  eggs  laid 
by  hens  suffering  from  tuberculosis  in  one  or  other  of  its  forms, 
even  where  the  lungs  are  affected,  or  from  liver  disease,  do  not 
immediately  show  signs  that  the  parental  disease  is  inherited, 
and  sometimes  may  escape  altogether  if  the  conditions  and 
methods  of  feeding  are  favourable.  At  the  same  time  it  is  within 
general  knowledge  that  such  progeny  are  especially  prone  to 
suffer  from  the  same  disease  at  a  later  period  of  life.  The  con- 
sensus of  medical  opinion  is  that,  whilst  the  diseases  named  are 
not  directly  inherited,  the  tendency  is  present  in  that,  either  by 
general  constitutional  or  organic  weakness,  there  is  not  the  full 
power  of  resistance  to  attacks  of  bacteria.  By  that  is  meant  the 
organ  affected  in  the  parents  has  a  lessened  degree  of  vigour  in 
the  descendants.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  evidence  that 
bacteria  or  parasites  may  be  passed  by  the  hen  into  the  egg,  and 
thence  to  the  chicken  hatched  from  it,  which  is  thus  born  to  die. 
In  the  epidemic  already  referred  to,  which  spread  largely  over 
parts  of  Belgium  in  1912  and  1913,  Professor  Frateur,  of  Louvain 
University,  discovered  the  same  germ  in  eggs  laid  by  infected 
hens  as  found  in  the  parents.  As  a  consequence,  we  have  a 
further  indication  of  the  importance  of  using  only  sound  stock 
for  breeding  purposes.  By  this  I  do  not  mean  that,  if  an  otherwise 
valuable  bird  has  a  bad  cold,  or  even  shows  signs  of  indigestion, 
it  shoiild  be  discarded,  as  these  are  local  and  temporary  affections 
which  will  cure  themselves  if  left  alone,  and  have  no  permanent 
influence.  Any  class  of  poultry  that  reveals  indications  of  a 
serious  affection  should  not  be  used  for  breeding.  Aciite  diseases 
which  are  more  rapid  in  their  effects  are  less  dangerous,  for 
these  usually  end  in  death,  or  leave  the  birds  so  debilitated  as  to 
be  useless.  What  have  specially  to  be  guarded  against  are  the 
insidious  affections  that  show  few  external  signs,  and  are  much 


POULTPvY  DISEASES  383 

slower  in  their  development.  Even  with  these,  however,  evi- 
dences are  generally  present  that  indicate  debilitation.  The  line 
of  safety  is  to  avoid  all  risks.  Personally,  I  believe  that  to  seek 
for  stock  which  are  immune  to  disease  is  a  vain  quest.  What 
we  have  to  do  is  to  prevent  disease  by  favourable  conditions 
and  adoption  of  right  methods. 

Conditional  Causes  of  Disease. — ^Probably  the  greater  number 
of  affections  and  diseases,  chronic  and  active,  are  due  to  bad  en- 
vironment, even  though  some  of  these  maj'  apparently  arise  from 
other  influences.  It  is  impossible  to  limit  the  effects  of  non- 
hygienic  or  insanitary  conditions,  which  may  develop  in  a  dozen 
different  ways.  As  these  have  been  dealt  with  in  previous 
chapters,  it  is  unnecessary  to  do  more  than  re-emphasize  the 
essential  importance  of  the  question  here  raised,  namely,  that — 

Want  of  proper  and  efficient  ventilation  deprives  the  bird  for 
several  hours  daily  of  oxj'^gen  sufficient  for  its  needs,  and,  by 
compelling  it  to  breathe  air  charged  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  im- 
poverishes the  blood,  overtaxes  the  lungs,  and,  if  continued,  so 
weakens  the  whole  system  as  to  render  it  unable  to  withstand 
attacks  of  diseases,  whether  chemical  or  parasitic. 

Want  of  light  in  the  house  affords  the  conditions  most  favour- 
able to  increase  of  bacteria  and  parasites,  which,  by  preying 
upon  the  fowls,  gradually  reduce  their  power  of  resistance. 
Sunlight  is  the  most  powerful  germicide  known. 

Lack  of  cleanliness  has  the  same  effect  as  that  stated  above, 
in  addition  to  which,  however,  is  the  action  upon  the  body 
through  the  atmosphere,  more  especially  as  seen  bj^  ammonia 
from  manure. 

Dampness,  either  in  the  house  or  the  soil,  appears  to  reduce 
the  vitality  by  more  rapid  elimination  of  heat,  leading  to  chills, 
and  often  causing  inflammation  in  certain  organs. 

Probably  that  which  has  been  responsible  for  the  greatest 
amount  of  disease  is  tainted  soil.  Not  only  does  it  act  like  slow 
poison  upon  the  system,  but  also  the  manure  offers  a  medium  in 
which  injurious  parasites  develop  rapidly. 

^^^len  all  these  various  conditional  influences  are  found  in  com- 
bination, as  is  frequently  the  case — for  negligence  is  seldom  in 
one  direction — we  have,  on  the  one  hand,  reduction  of  power 
to  combat  antagonistic  influences,  and  a  great  increase  in  the 
enemies  and  influences  to  be  met.  Under  such  circumstances 
everything  is  favourable  to  development  of  disease. 

Lessened  Functional  Activity. — One  of  the  penalties  which 
frequently  follows  domestication  is  abrogation  of  the  need  for 


384  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

seeking  food,  more  especially  where  birds  are  kept  within  en- 
closures and  all  food  has  to  be  supplied.  Under  these  conditions, 
the  danger  of  reducing  the  physical  powers  by  absolute  disuse 
is  a  very  positive  one.  Young  creatures  may  take  exercise  for 
the  verj'^  pleasure  of  it.  That,  however,  does  not  continue  for 
long.  In  this  respect  there  is  a  great  difference  in  breeds,  some 
of  which  are  much  more  active  than  are  others.  Yet  all  are 
affected  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent.  The  effect  upon  growing 
stock  is  seen  in  an  undoubted,  though  perhaps  scarcely  per- 
ceptible, weakening  of  the  system,  which  reacts  upon  frame, 
muscles,  and  organs,  and  the  power  of  resistance  to  malign 
influences.  As  decrease  of  exercise,  combined  with  an  abundant 
supply  of  food,  is  usually  followed  by  increase  of  fatty  deposits 
in  the  body,  the  functional  activity  is  checked ;  and  if  such  birds 
are  used  for  breeding,  degeneracy  in  the  progeny  results,  even 
where  disease  does  not  immediately  supervene. 

Causation  by  Food. — A  famous  surgeon  once  informed  me  that 
9.")  per  cent,  of  his  patients  could  have  jirevented  the  need  for 
consulting  him  by  greater  care  in  diet.  In  poultry,  also,  a  vast 
amount  of  diseases  affecting  the  blood  and  digestive  organs  are 
distinctly  due  to  the  use  of  unsuitable  and  rich  food,  and  too  much 
of  it.  I  have  practically  come  to  the  conclusion  that  soft  food, 
except  for  birds  intended  to  be  killed,  and  for  layers  that  are  not 
to  be  used  as  breeders,  is  not  so  beneficial  as  was  formerly  sup- 
posed. Hard  corn  and  green  food  in  smaller  quantities,  supple- 
mental to  what  can  be  found  naturalh^  would  go  far  to  obviate 
a  great  amount  of  disease,  more  especially  if  given  in  the  way 
which  compels  exercise.  Rich  food  is  non-economic,  but  has 
much  more  serious  effects  as  a  direct  cause  of  disease. 

Healthy  Stock. — From  what  is  stated  above,  it  will  be  evident 
that,  whilst  conditional  influences  are  powerful  factors  in  pre- 
vention of  disease,  and  where  these  are  unfavourable  cause  a 
great  amount  of  loss,  in  a  large  number  of  instances  infection  is 
transmitted  from  one  bird  to  another.  The  introduction  of  a 
diseased  specimen  is  frequently  the  immediate  cause  of  outbreaks 
in  one  form  or  another.  Exhibitions  are  responsible  for  a  large 
ajnount  of  disease,  as  is  the  practice  of  forwarding  birds  in  old 
baskets  and  hampers  which  have  not  been  disinfected,  and  which 
by  their  structure  provide  harbourages  for  bacteria  and  para- 
sites. An  affection  may  be  dormant,  and  therefore  unsuspected, 
only  revealing  itself  as  a  result  of  change  in  condition.  What, 
however,  has  to  be  kept  in  view  is  that  the  introduction  of  a 
diseased  bird  will  be  harmful  to  the  degree  that  the^  poultry 


POULTRY  DISEASES  385 

with  which  it  comes  in  contact  are  in  the  condition  favourable 
to  infection,  otherwise  the  parasites  he  may  thus  introduce 
would  be  unable  to  exert  their  influence.  It  has  been  claimed 
that  a  perfectly  healthy  man  can  work  in  a  cholera  hospital  with- 
out risk.  Such  fact  explains  why  some  birds  and  flocks  escape, 
whilst  others  readily  fall  victims  to  epidemic  and  other  diseases. 
Unless  and  until  measures  be  taken  to  prevent  disease  at  the 
source  by  breeding  from  healthy  stock,  kept  under  sanitary 
conditions  and  treated  in  a  right  way,  the  dangers  of  epidemic 
and  other  diseases  must  be  considerable.  As  a  measure  of  pre- 
caution, all  newly-introduced  birds  should  be  isolated  for  at 
least  two  weeks  before  they  are  allowed  to  mix  with  the  other 
stock.  By  doing  so,  time  will  be  allowed  for  latent  disease  to 
declare  itself.  A  further  valuable  precaution  is  that  birds 
dying  of  disease  shall  be  destroyed,  so  as  to  prevent  spread  of 
infection.     That  is  often  neglected. 

Serum  Prevention. — ^The  late  Louis  Pasteur  during  his  in- 
vestigations into  chicken  cholera  recommended  inoculation  by 
serum  for  prevention  of  that  disease.  The  same  course  has  been 
adopted  in  other  countries,  and  with  success,  though  the  dura- 
tion of  influence  appears  to  be  comparatively  short,  necessitating 
repetition  at  intervals.  One  of  the  most  striking  examples  of 
what  has  been  done  is  in  Holland,  The  Serum  Institute  at 
Rotterdam  sends  out  operators  as  required,  who  inoculate  fowls 
against  chicken  cholera  and  Klein's  disease,  of  which  there  have 
been  several  serious  epidemics  in  the  Netherlands.  The  results 
have  proved  very  successful  in  checking  spread  of  the  disease, 
mainly  by  rendering  imnnme  for  a  time  the  non-affected  birds. 
As  a  means  of  dealing  with  outbreaks  when  these  occur,  and  of 
limiting  their  scope  and  effect,  such  treatment  is  most  valuable. 
As  a  permanent  factor,  I  cannot  regard  it  as  possible  or  de- 
sirable. The  labour  and  cost  of  inoculating  all  fowls  on  each 
farm  in  a  district,  say  every  year,  would  be  great,  and  the  benefit 
would  be  small  unless  this  were  done.  That  would  deter  the 
majority  of  farmers  from  keeping  poultry,  or  they  would  refuse 
to  adopt  such  system.  As  an  occasional  expedient,  serum  treat- 
ment is  valuable.  What  must  be  sought  for  are  the  methods  of 
prevention,  applying  these  as  generally  as  possible. 

Symptoms  of  Disease. — Many  affections  from  which  poultry 
suffer  can  be  diagnosed  without  difficulty,  as  the  sj'mptoms  are 
apparent.  Among  these  may  be  included  attacks  of  various 
internal  and  external  parasites;  diseases  affecting  the  nervous 
system,  the  skin  and  comb,  the  crop,  the  limbs,  the  oviduct,  the 

25 


38G 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


digestive  organs,  and  accidents.  In  these  a  mistake  can  hardly 
be  made.  When  we  consider  diseases  of  a  more  complex  nature, 
it  is  evident  that  the  same  symptom  may  be  indicative  of  several 
distinct  diseases.  That  is  specially  true  in  respect  to  tempera- 
ture, breathing,  ai^pcarancc  of  the  plumage,  and  the  evacuations. 
To  some  extent,  it  is  alone  by  careful  study  of  symptoms  in  com- 
bination that  a  guess — and  it  is  generally  nothing  more — can  be 
made  as  to  what  is  the  true  nature  of  the  disease.  With  the 
more  serious  affections  a  correct  diagnosis  is  practically  im- 
possible until  the  later  stages,  or  after  death,  when  a  post- 
mortem is  made.  Under  these  conditions,  it  is  of  great  impor- 
tance that  there  be  such  examination,  so  as  to  reveal  the  cause 
and  lead  to  measures  of  prevention. 

Although  knowledge  in  this  direction  is  very  incomjilete,  I 
quote  below  a  table,*  which  is  the  best  published  up  to  the 
present  time: 


Symptom. 

Abdomen  swollen 

Belching  of  gas    . . 

Breathing  abnormal — -i.e.,  too 
rapid,  too  slow,  wheezing, 
whistling,  snoring,  or  in  any 
way  different  from  abnoimal 

Choking    . . 

Comb  pale 


Discuses  wliich  the  Symptom 
named  may  indicate. 
Peritonitis,  dropsy,  white  diarrhoea. 
Inflammation  of  crop. 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  system,  arsenic 
poisoning,  pericarditis,  gapes,  air-sac 
mite. 


Arsenic  poisoning. 

Tuberculosis,  dropsy,  air-sac  mite,  infectious 

leukaemia,  white  diarrhoea. 
Enteritis. 
Liver    disease,    blackhead,    congestion    of 

lungs,  pneumonia. 
Liver  diseases,  visceral  gout. 
White-comb. 
Simple  constipation,  indigestion,  inliamma- 

tion  of  oviduct. 
Arsenic    poisoning,    copper,   lead,    or    zinc 

poisoning,  ejiilepsy,  "  harvest-bug." 
Cough       . .  . .  . .  . .     Diseases  of  the  respiratory  system. 


Comb  first  pale,  but  later  dark . . 
Comb  very  dark  . . 

Comb  yellow 

Comb  with  white  powdery  scurf 

Constipation 

Convulsions 


Crop  enlarged  and  hard 
Crop  enlarged  and  soft 


Diarrhoea 


Nostrils,  discharge  from 
Emaciations 

Eye,  expansion  of  pupil . . 
Eye,  sticky  discharge  from 
Face  swollen 

Droppings  bright  emerald  green 
Fever  marked 


Crop- bound. 

Inflammation  of  crop,  enlarged  crop,  gas- 
tritis. 

Diseases  of  the  alimentaiy  tract,  arsenic 
poisoning,  copper,  lead,  or  zinc  poisoning, 
blackhead,  tuberculosis,  cholera,  roup, 
white  diarrhoea. 

Diseases  of  the  respiratoiy  system. 

Tuberculosis,  aspergillosis,  visceral  gout, 
mites,  white  diarrhoea. 

Arsenic  poisoning. 

Catarrh. 

Roup. 

Cholera. 

Peritonitis,  aspergillosis,  infectious  leu- 
kajmia,  inflammation  of  oviduct. 


*  "Poultry  Diseases  and  their  Treatment,"  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  1911. 


POULTRY  DISEASES  387 

_         .  Diseases  which  the  Symptom 

Symptom.  „_^^jgj  ^^^^  indicate 

Lameness  ..  ..  ..     Tuberculosis,      aspergillosis,      rheumatism, 

scaly  leg,  bumble  foot. 

Legs     roughened,     with     scales     Scaly  leg. 
raised 

Mouth,  mucous  discharge  from. .     Congestion  of  tlu-  lung-!,  pneumonia,  gapes. 

Mouth,  whit*  cheesy  patches  in     Roup,  easiker. 

Nausea  and  vomiting    . .  . .      InHammatiou  of  the  crop,  copper,  load,  or 

zinc  poisoning. 

Neck  bent  backwai-d      . .  . .     Strychnine    poisoning,    congestion    of    the 

brain,  wry-neck. 

Neck  limp  Limber-neck. 

Paralysis  . .  . .  . .  . .     Copper,  lead,  or  zinc  poisoning,  strychnine 

poisoning,  apoplexy,  heat  pro.stration. 

Saliva,  copious  secretion  of       . .     Arsenic  poisoning. 

Skin  puffed  out  in  blisters         . .     Emphysema. 

Skin  scaly  and  encrusted  . .      Body  mango,  favus. 

Staggering  Congestion  of  the  brain,  log  weakness. 

Thirst  excessive  . .  . .     Hypertrophy  of  the  liver,  peritonitis,  asper- 

gillosis, tapeworm. 

Tongue  hard  and  dry     . .  . .      Pip,  diseases  of  the  respiratory  .system. 

Tumoui-s  on  head  . .  . .      Roup,  chicken-pox. 

Urates  yellow       . .  . .  . .     Cholera. 

Vent,    mass   of   inflamed    tissue     Prolapse  of  oviduct, 
projecting  from 

Vent,  skin  inflamed        . .  . .     Vent  gleet. 

Generally  speaking,  however,  whenever  a  bird  is  sick,  that  fact 
can  be  discerned  by  its  appearance,  common  to  all  affections. 
The  work  referred  to  on  this  point  says:  "  A  sick  fowl  is  usually 
quiet,  and  does  not  move  about  unless  disturbed.  It  stands  or 
sits  with  the  neck  contracted,  so  that  the  head  is  pulled  well 
into  the  body,  giving  the  bird  a  '  humped  -  up  '  appearance. 
The  eyes  are  often  closed,  entirelj'  or  partly,  giving  the  bird  a 
sleepy  appearance.  Often  the  feathers  are  roughened,  and  stick 
out  all  over  the  body.  The  comb  and  wattles  may  be  dark, 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be  very  pale."  When  seen  to  bo 
sick,  a  bird  ought  at  once  to  be  isolated,  and  a  hospital  should 
alwa^'s  be  provided  where  the  numbers  kept  warrant  such  an 
arrangement. 

Post-Mortem  Examinations. — Where  an  outbreak  of  disease 
appears  to  be  serious,  application  for  advice  should  be  made 
either  to  the  veterinary  deparments  of  the  various  Boards  of 
Agriculture  in  London,  Edinlmrgh,  or  Dublin,  or  to  a  qualified 
expert.  It  is,  however,  desirable  that  the  poultryman  should 
know  how  to  make  a  post-mortem  examination.  The  following 
description  is  taken  from  Poultry  : 

"  Let  it  be  understood  that  a  \ery  large  number  of  poultry 
which  die  are  victims  of  some  entirely  simple  complaint,  such  as 
enlargement  of  the  liver  or  tuberculosis  in  the  lungs.  Ihese 
complaints  are  easily  recognizable,  and  there  is  no  reason  at  all 
why  any  farmer  or  amateur  poultry -keeper  should  not  be  able 


388  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

to  form  a  general  opinion  as  to  whether  his  poultry  are  dying 
off  from  some  such  complaint  as  one  or  other  of  these.  Take  the 
dead  bird  and  lay  it  on  a  wooden  table,  or  on  a  piece  of  strong 
board,  breast  uppermost.  Spread  out  the  wings  and  the  legs, 
putting  a  small  nail  through  the  joint  of  each  wing  and  Ihrough 
the  centre  of  each  foot.  It  is  not  necessaiy  for  the  biid  to  be 
entirely  plucked;  it  will  be  enough  to  pluck  the  breast,  and 
when  this  has  been  done  pinch  up  the  skin  at  the  point  of  the 
breast-bone,  and  cut  it  straight  through,  from  the  vent  to  the 
crop.  Having  done  this,  draw  back  the  skin  on  both  sides,  so 
as  to  leave  the  flesh  fully  exposed,  and  then  with  a  sharp  knife 
cut  through  the  flesh  on  both  sides  of  the  breast-bone,  and  with 
a  strong,  blunt-pointed  pair  of  scissors  cut  out  the  centre  of  the 
breast-bone  entirely,  taking  particular  care  in  doing  so  not  to 
injure  the  heart,  as  a  flow  of  blood  from  the  heart  will  interfere 
with  subsequent  operations.  When  this  has  been  done,  the 
principal  organs  will  be  seen  clearly  exposed. 

"  First  of  all  examine  the  liver.  To  be  perfectly  healthy,  it 
should  be  of  a  rich  chocolate-brown  colour,  free  from  any  specks, 
and  free  from  any  discoloration  (although  there  are  sometimes 
post-mortem  cliscolorations  at  the  edges,  which  are  easily  recog- 
nizable). If  the  liver  contains  any  specks,  it  is  unhealthy,  as 
it  should  not  be  what  is  known  as  '  pasty  '  or  '  rotten.'  Healthy 
and  firm  to  the  touch,  and  of  the  proper  colour,  is  the  general 
description  to  apply  to  the  liver.  The  heart  should  then  be 
lookecl  at,  and  it  should  also  be  quite  firm,  free  from  any  ex- 
cessive covering  of  fat,  and  also  quite  free  from  little  nodules 
of  tuberculosis.  Another  thing  about  the  heart  is  that  it  should 
be  even-lobed — that  is  to  say,  it  should  not  be  distended  on  one 
side  and  empty  on  the  other;  if  it  be  so,  the  probability  is  that 
the  bird  has  died  from  heart  failure,  and,  supposing  it  is  known 
that  the  bird  did  die  suddenly,  this  can  at -once  be  accepted  as 
the  cause — syncope,  failure  of  the  heart's  action,  which  always 
ends  in  very  sudden  death,  the  bird  simply  dropping  down 
dead  without  any  warning.  The  lungs,  which  will  be  seen  on 
either  side  at  the  back  of  the  heart,  are  spongy-looking  bodies 
of  a  pink  colour.  If  a  piece  of  one  of  the  lungs  can  be  cut  off 
and  be  placed  in  a  bowl  of  water,  it  should  float,  not  sink,  or  it 
will  be  unhealthy.  Always  look  at  the  lungs  for  tuberculosis, 
which  is  usually  to  be  detected  there,  and  is  indicated  by  little 
cheesy  nodules  in  the  substance  of  the  lungs,  which  cannot  pos- 
sibly be  mistaken ;  sometimes  the  lungs  and  the  heart  will  all  be 
eaten  by  these  tuberculous  masses.  If  no  disease  has  been  found 
so  far,  proceed  to  examine  the  crop  and  the  gullet,  also  the  wind- 


POULTRY  DISEASES  389 

pipe.  With  regard  to  the  crop,  it  might  also  be  examined  first, 
if  it  is  full  of  food,  and  apparently  in  a  state  of  congestion,  to 
see  whether  there  be  a  stoppage  in  the  opening  from  the  crop 
to  the  pro  ventricle.  The  gullet  and  windpipe  can  also  be  ex- 
amined, to  see  if  there  is  anj'thing  unhealthy  about  them. 
Similarly,  an  examination  can  then  be  made  of  the  intestines, 
and,  in  the  case  of  a  hen,  the  egg  organs  can  be  carefully  dis- 
sected, to  see  whether  there  is  a  broken  egg,  or  whether  any  egg 
substance  has  escaped  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen  and  set 
up  inflammation. 

"  There  is  no  difftculty  about  making  an  examination  of  the 
skull,  and  the  amateur,  with  a  little  practice,  will  very  easily 
be  able  to  do  this.  The  way  to  set  about  it  is  to  start  at  one 
corner  of  the  mouth,  and  with  a  j^air  of  sharp-pointed  scissors 
cut  around  the  skull  to  the  other  corner  of  the  mouth;  it  will 
then  be  quite  an  easy  matter  to  lift  up  the  skull  from  the  back, 
and  the  brain  will  be  clearly  seen.  This  should  be  perfectly 
clear,  and  if  there  be  any  trace  of  a  slight  effusion  of  blood,  it 
will  be  positive  evidence  of  an  apoplectic  seizure,  and  will  con- 
firm the  symptoms,  which  are  delirium,  resulting,  after  a  few 
hours'  or  a  few  daj^s'  helplessness,  in  death.  These,  then,  are 
the  principal  points,  and  any  amateur  can  make  a  simple, 
matter-of-fact  examination  such  as  has  been  described,  very 
often  with  considerable  satisfaction  to  himself." 

Parasites. — ^Disease  is  in  many  cases  caused  by  parasites, 
which  also  prey  upon  poultry,  reducing  their  vitality.  Of  these 
are  many  forms.  What  we  must  accomplish  is  keeping  them 
in  check.  Professor  F.  V.  Theobald,  M.A.,  in  an  article  appear- 
ing in  the  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  made  the  following 
suggestions : 

"  Infestation  is  alwaj's  worst  in  dirty  and  neglected  runs 
and  roosts,  and  such  arc  a  standing  danger  to  more  cleanly  neigh- 
bours. Cleanliness  and  freedom  will  always  put  these  pests 
under  a  disadvantage — not  only  cleanliness  of  the  nests,  walls, 
and  floor,  but  also  of  the  ceilings  and  perches.  To  suppress 
these  pests,  the  houses  should  be  cleaned  down  at  least  twice 
a  year  with  a  wash  made  of  lime,  sulphur,  and  soft-soap,  the 
ceilings,  walls,  and  nests,  having  a  good  coating.  The  wash 
should  be  fairly  liquid,  so  as  to  run  into  every  crack  and  crevice. 
Early  spring  and  autumn  are  the  times  for  these  applications. 
The  perches  are  best  treated  with  boiling  water  and  soft-soap, 
or  with  an  emulsion  of  kerosene  or  creosote.  This  latter  in- 
secticide is  most  beneficial,  especially  in  regard  to  mites. 

"Special  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  nests;  they  should 


390  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

be  frequently  cleansed  and  changed  to  keep  off  fleas  and  other 
parasites.  Neither  nest-boxes  nor  perches  should  be  fixed; 
relays  of  each  should  be  at  hand,  so  that  they  can  be  changed 
to  insure  complete  disinfection.  The  nest-boxes  should  be  now 
and  then  cleaned  out,  and  dressed  with  hot  lime  and  sulphur, 
or  with  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  Either  dusting  the 
prepared  nests  with  Persian  insect  powder  or  putting  a  little 
sawdust  or  sand  soaked  in  naphthaline  at  the  bottom  will  keep 
off  these  dejoredators.  Wood-shavings  or  wood-wool  in  the 
nests  instead  of  straw  is  most  beneficial.  No  lice  or  fleas  will 
live  in  it,  owing  to  the  aromatic  odour  given  off  from  the  wood. 
Care,  of  course,  must  be  taken  that  the  remedies  employed  do 
not  affect  the  eggs  in  the  nest. 

"  Schneider's  suggestion  of  fumigating  the  roost  with  sul- 
phiu-et  of  carbon,  put  in  small  phials  in  the  corners  of  the  houses, 
etc.,  where  they  cannot  be  ujxset,  is  very  successful  so  far  as 
killing  the  pests  goes,  but  this  method  is  not  cpiite  safe  to  recom- 
mend. Regarding  the  infestation  of  the  birds  themselves,  Avhite 
precijiitate  seldom  fails.  The  heads  and  necks  of  young  chicks 
should  be  early  dressed  very  sparingly,  and  repeated  when 
necessary.  White  precipitate  is  a  strong  irritant  poison,  and 
needs  the  greatest  care  in  its  use,  especially  in  young  chicks. 
It  is  best  obtained  as  an  ointment  from  the  chemist's.  Hens 
selected  for  sitting  should  have  a  small  quantity  of  this  oint- 
ment rubbed  in  under  the  vent,  head,  and  sides,  and  then  be 
well  dusted  with  insect  powder.  Sitting  hens  are  greatly  tortau'cd 
by  parasites,  and  their  young  are  often  lost  by  neglect  of  these 
simple  precautions.  The  skin  should  be  first  moistened  with 
soft-soa]3  and  water  prior  to  dusting  the  birds  with  insect  powder 
(pyrethrum).  Some  breeders  prefer  flowers  of  sulphur.  Dust 
baths  are  the  natural  remedy  for  lice  and  mites,  and  fowls  shoidd 
never  be  kept  without  them.  Sand  mixed  with  a  small  quantity 
of  creosote  will  generally  keep  the  birds  free  from  vermin. 
Finely-divided  gypsum  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  paraffin 
or  carbolic  is  still  more  successful  for  these  dust  baths,  quickly 
getting  rid  of  any  lingering  pests  that  the  birds  cannot  reach." 

Simple  Affections. — Below  are  dealt  with  a  few  affections  that 
are  more  or  less  local,  and  in  which  treatment  may  be  attempted 
by  the  poultryman: 

Crop-Bound. — ^This  is  the  commonest  form  of  crop  trouble, 
and  is  generally  caused  by  careless  feeding.  If  green  food  be 
withheld  for  a  time,  and  then  given  in  unlimited  quantities,  the 
fowl  will  eat  to  repletion;  and  as  the  crop  cannot  deal  with  this 
mass  of  undigested  food  all  at  once,  it  becomes  hard,  and  not 


POULTRY  DISEASES  391 

only  itself  cannot  pass  into  the  stomach,  but  effectively  bars 
the  way  for  other  food.  This  same  result  may  be  caused  by 
feeding  new  grain,  which,  swelling  in  the  crop,  becomes  a  solid 
mass,  or  by  the  presence  of  a  twig,  or  some  undigestible  substance 
that  has  been  swallowed  by  the  fowl.  The  proof  of  a  bound 
crop  is  purely  external,  but  is,  fortunately,  very  easily  discernible. 
Instead  of  the  organ  having  a  firm,  close  appearance — in  fact, 
not  being  seen — it  hangs  down  like  a  bag,  and  on  feeling  it  we 
find  that  there  is  a  lump  or  ball  of  food  inside.  If  the  trouble 
is  discovered  early,  cure  is  comparatively  easy.  The  first  step 
is  to  pour  some  salad-oil  or  melted  lard  down  the  throat,  and  then 
to  work  gently  the  crop  contents  by  the  hand.  This,  if  properly 
and  effectively  done,  will  soon  cause  the  food  and  the  fluid  to 
mix,  and  when  the  mass  has  been  well  broken  up,  it  will  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours  pass  away. 

When  the  kneading  process  is  ineffectual,  then  an  operation 
becomes  necessary.  The  process  is  to  make  an  incision  length- 
wise in  the  upper  part  of  the  crop,  about  1|  inches  in  length. 
This  should  be  cleanly  made  through  the  skins  with  a  very 
sharp  sterilized  knife  or  lancet.  Through  the  incision  the 
contents  of  the  crop  may  be  removed,  using  for  that  purpose 
a  small  egg  spoon.  Sometimes  the  mass  is  so  hard  that  it  cannot 
pass  through  the  aperture,  and  in  that  case  it  must  be  broken 
up,  which  can  be  accomplished  with  care  and  patience.  This 
mass  is  usually  very  offensive,  and,  to  remove  any  contaminating 
matter  remaining,  the  organ  should  be  washed  out  with  warm 
milk  and  water,  or  any  weak  non-poisonous  disinfectant.  It  is 
also  desirable  to  pass  the  fuiger,  well  pared  and  oiled,  into  the 
orifice,  so  as  to  be  certain  that  there  is  no  obstruction  of  the 
oesophagus,  otherwise  the  whole  process  may  have  to  be  repeated. 
This  done,  the  incision  must  be  sewn  up,  for  which  a  small  bent 
needle  should  be  employed,  as  by  it  the  skin  can  be  easily  gathered 
together,  using  white  silk  or  horsehan.  The  inner  skin  should 
be  sewn  first,  and  then  the  outer. 

Soft  Cro}). — In  some  instances,  when  the  crop  is  distended, 
there  is  no  mass  of  food,  and  the  distensoin  is  a  surcharge  of 
water  or  air  in  the  crop.  The  cause  is  difficult  to  determine, 
but  probably  arises  from  some  inability  on  the  part  of  this  organ 
to  perform  its  functions.  When  discovered,  an  attempt  should 
be  made  to  expel  the  contents  by  holding  the  fowl  upside  down, 
and  pressing  the  crop  with  the  hands.  If  this  does  not  secure 
the  desired  effect,  it  then  becomes  necessary  to  puncture  the 
crop.  A  coarse  darning  needle  will  answer  very  well  for  the 
purpose,  and  the  incision,  when  made,  will  not  need  stitching- 


392  POtJLTRY  HUSBANDRY 

A  fowl  found  to  be  affected  should  be  kept  in  a  pen  by  itself, 
where  it  cannot  obtain  any  food  except  that  supplied  to  it,  and 
be  fed  three  times  a  day  with  a  small  quantitj^  of  toasted  bread. 
Sojt  Eggs. — One  of  the  earliest  forms  of  derangement  of  the 
egg  organs  is  indicated  by  the  laying  of  soft  eggs.  Sometimes, 
however,  this  is  merely  due  to  want  of  shell-forming  materials, 
chiefly  with  fowls  in  confinement.  When  birds  are  kept  in  small 
runs,  and  commence  to  lay  these  soft  eggs,  the  first  thing  is  to 
see  whether  \\\cy  have  sufficient  calcareous  materials.  If  this 
is  found  to  l)e  the  case,  it  will  generallj'  be  discovered  that  over 
or  improper  feeding  is  the  cause.  The  egg  organs  have  been 
unduly  stimulated,  so  that  thej^  are  unable  to  retain  the  egg 
until  coated  with  the  shell.  Lajing  must  be  checked  by  the 
withholding  of  food  having  the  slightest  stimulating  tendency, 
and  bj^  the  giving  of  an  aperient.  For  the  latter  there  is  nothing 
better  than  a  pill  composed  of  1  grain  of  calomel  and  |  grain  of 
tartar  emetic.  A  little  iron  may  be  given  in  the  water  as  a  tonic, 
and  the  food  should  consist  of  boiled  rice  and  potatoes.  We 
have  known,  however,  soft-shelled  eggs  caused  by  the  hen  being 
frightened,  and  to  i^revent  this  the  nests  should  always  be  in 
as  quiet  a  place  as  possible.  At  times  it  is  found  that  the 
presence  of  some  irritant  in  the  egg  passages  causes  this  trouble, 
and  when  that  is  so,  the  simplest  way  is  to  try  a  dose  of  castor- 
oil. 

Egg-Bound. — Another  form  is  when  the  hen  cannot  lay  her 
egg,  which  blocks  up  the  oviduct.  This  may  be  caused  by  a 
contraction  of  the  passage,  or  by  abnormal  size  of  the  egg. 
The  noticeable  symptoms  are  a  frequent  visiting  of  the  nest 
without  any  result,  and  a  depression  of  the  tail  and  wings,  the 
bird  showing  evident  signs  of  distress.  If  the  egg  is  very  large, 
the  first  step  is  to  soften  the  vent  with  pure  salad-oil.  Should 
that  treatment  fail,  inject  an  ounce  of  the  same  oil  an  hour 
afterwards.  In  making  the  injection,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
break  the  egg,  as  that  would  probably  be  fatal  to  the  hen.  In 
more  obstinate  cases  good  will  residt  from  the  use  of  warm  treacle, 
in  which  sonie  chopped  groundsel  has  been  mixed.  This  should 
be  given  in  doses  of  a  tablespoonful  at  a  time  at  intervals  of  an 
hour,  until  the  necessary  relief  has  been  effected.  Small  doses 
of  castor-oil  may  be  substituted,  but  this  is  not  so  good.  In 
very  obstinate  cases  the  holding  of  the  vent  over  a  jug  of  boiling 
water,  in  which  10  drops  of  iodine  to  a  quart  of  water  is  added, 
so  as  to  well  steam  the  organ,  usually  gives  relief.  When  the 
egg  produced  is  of  the  regular  size,  it  betokens  contraction  of  the 
passage,  which  is  more  serious,  as  that  indicates  inllammation. 


POULTRY  DISEASES  393 

Leg  Weakness. — ^Young  birds,  especially  of  the  heavier  varieties 
reared  artificially,  are  often  troubled  with  a  failure  of  the  legs 
which  prevents  their  moving  about  freely.  Usually  it  takes 
the  form  of  the  bird  squatting  on  the  ground.  If  not  treated 
at  once,  the  joints  become  stiff,  the  toes  curl  up,  and,  when  the 
sufferer  attempts  to  walk,  it  can  only  do  so  on  its  elbows,  or  first 
leg-joints,  which  soon,  from  the  friction,  become  enlarged,  and 
have  the  skin  worn  off  on  the  under-side.  This  weakness  may 
be  caused  in  various  ways.  Very  often  it  is  due  to  a  more  rapid 
growth  of  the  frame  than  the  legs  are  able  to  bear,  and  when  that 
is  the  case  no  one  can  be  blamed  for  it,  as  climatic  influences 
may  have  been  at  work  that  could  not  be  foreseen.  Too  fre- 
quently it  is  the  result  of  forcing,  or  of  a  wrong  system  of  feeding. 
It  is  most  important  that  in  all  efforts  to  obtain  size  the  develop- 
ment of  both  frame  and  flesh  should  go  on  at  the  same  time. 
In  a  few  instances  we  have  known  leg  weakness  to  come  from 
keeping  the  young  birds  on  wooden  floors.  The  first  step  should 
be  to  cease  at  once  the  giving  of  all  food  that  has  the  slightest 
tendenc.y  to  increase  the  flesh,  and  to  substitute  that  which  will 
be  used  in  the  direction  of  bone  formation,  as  well  as  to  compel  as 
much  exercise  as  possible  in  seeking  for  food. 

Scaly  Legs. — ^Yellow-legged  birds  are  very  subject  to  a  form 
of  elephantiasis,  to  which  the  name  of  scaly  legs  is  commonly 
given.  There  are  two  forms  of  it.  The  one  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  a  small  insect  on  the  legs,  which  is  very  contagious.  The 
other  arises  from  a  deficiency  of  the  oily  secretion,  thus  causing 
the  skin  to  chy  ;ip  and  split  into  divisions  like  scales.  Both  are 
easy  of  cure.  For  the  parasitic  form  the  remedy  is,  after  washing 
the  legs  and  scrubbing  them  with  a  nail-brush,  to  apply  sulphur 
ointment.  For  the  other  kind  a  preparation  made  of  equal  parts  of 
vaseline  and  zinc  ointment,  applied  daily,  will  be  the  best  remedy. 

White-Comb. — Generally  due  to  overcrowding,  to  bad  feeding, 
and  the  absence  of  green  food.  The  comb  becomes  covered  with 
scurf,  which,  if  not  checked,  in  process  of  time  extends  down 
the  neck,  and  the  feathers  fall  off.  It  is  really  a  form  of  scurv5\ 
When  white-comb  appears,  there  should  be  immediate  attention 
to  the  food,  and  a  wholesome  and  liberal  diet,  pure  water,  grit 
for  the  assistance  of  digestion,  and  an  abundance  of  vegetables, 
with  strict  regard  to  cleanliness.  A  good  aperient  should  be 
given  two  or  three  times,  and  some  sulphur  mixed  with  soft 
food.  The  comb  should  be  anointed  with  a  little  vaseline. 
The  birds  when  cured  should  have  a  good  tonic. 

Worms. — Very  often,  when  birds  are  troubled  with  worms,  it 
is  difficult  to  discover  what  is  the  matter  with  them.     The  chief 


394  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

or  perhaps  the  only  symptom  noticed  is  that  they  mope  or  hang 
about.  When  worms  are  present,  the  safest  and  best  proof  is 
by  an  examination  of  the  dropj^ings,  in  which  worms  will  gener- 
ally be  seen  if  the  bird  is  so  troubled.  The  cure  is,  happily,  not 
a  very  diflficult  one.  The  best  remedy,  so  far  as  my  experience 
goes,  consists  of  capsules  of  turpentine,  one  or  two  of  which, 
followed  in  twelve  hours  by  a  dose  of  castor-oil,  have  always 
been  sufficient  to  expel  the  troublesome  parasites  from  the 
system. 

Various  Suggestions — Egg-Eating. — ^The  cause  of  egg-eating 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine,  but  usually  it  is  simply  a 
bad  habit.  A  blown  egg  should  be  filled  with  a  strong  mixture 
of  mustard  and  cayenne  pepper,  closing  up  the  ends  with  gummed 
l^aper.  Leave  this  in  the  nest,  and,  if  the  hen  tries  to  eat  it,  she 
will  obtain  a  dose  she  does  not  like,  which  may  prove  a  deterrent. 
Sometimes  the  habit  is  due  to  want  of  shell-forming  materials, 
a  supply  of  which  will  stop  the  trouble.  Placing  the  nests 
above-ground  and  in  a  quiet  place  will  generall}^  prevent  egg- 
eating. 

Feather -Eating. — Feather-eating  is  one  of  the  most  annoying 
practices  that  trouble  the  poultry-keeper,  and  is  both  difficult  to 
account  for  and  to  cure.  It  arises,  no  doubt,  from  the  want  of 
something  which  the  hens  require,  and  which  they  are  able  to 
find  for  themselves  in  a  natural  state,  for  fowls  with  a  wide 
range  seldom  show  it.  The  want  may  be  lime,  or  flesh  food, 
such  as  worms  and  grubs,  or  the  habit  may  be  encouraged  by 
the  presence  of  insects  in  the  feathers,  which  latter  can  be  pre- 
vented by  a  dust  bath.  Those  hens  which  are  usually  the 
culprits  had  better  be  removed  at  once,  as  the  habit  will  scarcely 
be  broken  off  if  kept  with  the  cock.  Pluck  the  stumps  of  the 
feathers  out  of  the  cock,  and  wash  the  bare  places  w^ell ;  then  rub 
on  vaseline  or  olive-oil,  mixed  with  a  tenth  part  of  carbolic  acid. 
Give  the  birds  plenty  of  exercise  by  burying  the  corn  and  letting 
them  work  for  it,  and  also  hang  a  piece  of  meat  or  a  cabbage  by 
a  string  just  where  they  can  touch  it,  and  so  that  it  will  swing 
about.     Some  bone-meal  should  also  be  given  in  the  soft  food. 

Professor  Theobald  says:  "There  are  two  kinds  of  feather- 
eating — viz.,  '  self -feather-eating,'  and  the  eating  of  other  birds' 
feathers.  The  former  is  entirely  due  to  the  mites  living  upon 
and  irritating  the  roots  of  the  quills,  and,  so  far  as  is  known, 
the  latter  is  caused  by  the  same  acarus.  The  form  on  the  fowls 
makes  its  appearance  about  April,  and  is  most  prevalent  in  spring 
and  summer.  The  mites  can  be  easily  found  amongst  the  white, 
powdery  matter  at  the  base  of  the  quill.     The  minute  young  are 


POULTRY  DISEASES  395 

transmitted  during  copulation.  The  fowls  pluck  out  the 
feathers  to  destroy  the  irritation  caused  by  the  mites  at  their 
base.  Prevention  and  Remedies. — ^As  the  disease  is  contagious, 
isolation  of  the  affected  bird  is  the  first  step,  especialh^  if  it  be 
a  cock.  The  mites  readily  yield  to  treatment  with  oil  of  cloves 
rubbed  into  the  infected  area.  One  part  of  creosote  to  thirty 
of  lard  or  vaseline  is  still  more  sviccessful." 

Moulting. — The  moulting  of  birds  is  an  operation  which  usuallj'^ 
takes  place  every  year,  and  is  the  casting  of  one  set  of  feathers 
and  replacing  them  by  entirely  new  ones.  There  is  a  constant 
change  of,  and  growth  in,  the  feathers  all  the  year  round,  ))ut 
only  during  the  moulting  season  is  there  anything  like  regularity 
in  the  process.  Moulting  makes  a  considerable  demand  upon 
the  system.  Chickens  hatched  during  the  first  four  or  five 
months  of  the  j^ear  obtain  their  adult  plumage  about  September 
or  October;  but  this  cannot  be  called  a  moult,  and  the  first 
one  takes  place  about  the  following  September.  Every  year  this 
becomes  later  and  more  j^rotracted.  Hence  the  plan  advocated 
for  laying  fowls — namely,  killing  off  birds  before  their  first  or 
second  moult,  when  they  are  still  good  for  table  purposes,  and 
before  they  have  to  be  kept  withoiit  any  profit. 

The  time  during  which  birds  are  moulting  is  a  somewhat 
critical  period,  its  nature  depending  very  much  upon  the  stamina 
and  constitution  of  the  breed.  There  is  a  considerable  amount 
of  difference  in  the  way  which  the  various  breeds  come  through 
the  moult.  Some  of  the  hxirdier  varieties  pass  through  it  both 
rapidly  and  easily,  whilst  others  find  it  most  protracted  and 
difficult.  The  usual  period  of  moulting  for  a  strong  bird  in  its 
first  or  second  year  is  six  to  eight  weeks,  in  which  time  the  old 
feathers  are  completelj^  cast,  and  new  ones  occupy  their  place ;  but 
it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  weak  or  old  birds  taking  three 
months,  with  the  result  that  winter  arrives  before  they  get 
through  it,  and  they  do  not  recommence  laying  until  the  following 
spring,  so  that  several  months  are  lost,  and  when  the  produce 
is  most  valuable.  All  that  is  necessary  for  healthy  birds  is  to 
give  warm  food  once  a  day,  mixing  in  it  some  seasoning  powder, 
and  lean  meat  with  a  little  grain,  such  as  buckwheat  and  hemp- 
seed,  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  In  the  cbinking  water  put  a  little 
sulphate  of  iron  and  sulphuric  acid — say  two  pieces  of  the  former, 
the  size  of  nuts,  and  ten  ch'ops  of  the  latter,  to  a  gallon  of  water, 
and,  of  course,  this  must  be  renewed  ever^^  day,  as  fresh  water 
is  most  important . 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Formerly  there  were  two  ideas  commonly  held  by  agricul- 
turists which  profoundly  influenced  the  way  in  which  poultry 
were  regarded  in  connection  with  farm  operations.  These  were, 
first,  that  j^oultry  as  stock  could  not  be  made  profitable  as  could 
other  animals,  but  that,  by  the  utilization  of.  food  which  would 
otherwise  be  wasted,  they  contributed  in  some  slight  degree  to 
promote  the  general  prosperity  of  the  farm.  That  view  was 
held  by  many  who  were  not  antagonistic  to  poultry  as  such. 
And,  second,  that  whilst  the  fowls  might  provide  an  interest  for, 
employment  to,  and  "  pin-money  "  for,  the  female  members  of 
the  household,  or  by  forming  a  minor  pursuit  help  in  food-supply 
for  the  family,  this  branch  of  livestock  was  beneath  the  notice 
and  not  worth  th(;  labour  of  men.  Both  of  these  positions  have 
been  frankly  abandoned.  Abundant  proof  is  forthcoming  that, 
under  proper  business  control,  poultry  husbandry  in  association 
with  farming,  whether  the  occupation  be  large  or  small,  can  be 
made  one  of  the  most  profitable  branches ;  and  that,  whilst  women 
will  alwaj^s  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  relation  to  poultry 
culture,  and  that  for  many  of  the  operations  they  arc  better 
qualified  than  men,  the  wider  outlook  of  the  latter  and  their 
greater  ojiportunities  are  essential  factors.  It  is  a  man's  and 
a  woman's  business.  Each  is  the  complement  of,  and  a  necessity 
to,  the  other. 

Capital. — Under  farm  conditions  the  ordinary  cpiestionsof  capital 
in  respect  to  poultry  husbandry  do  not  enter.  As  the  poultry  side 
develops,  expenditure  there  must  be  for  houses  and  appliances, 
though  this  need  not  be  great,  more  especially  if  the  business  be 
built  up  gradually.  Rent,  buildings,  labour,  and  working 
capital,  are  either  not  required,  or  are  small  compared  with  what 
would  be  necessary  on  a  poultrj^  farm,  whether  that  be  for 
production  of  market  eggs  and  poultry,  or  as  a  breeding  cstab- 
396 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY    397 

lishment.  Under  the  former  conditions,  what  is  stated  above, 
together  with  purchase  of  fresh  stock,  is  all  that  has  to  be  pro- 
vided for.  Even  vipon  a  good-sized  holding,  unless  there  be 
any  measure  of  specialization,  £50  to  £100  will  cover  all  the 
capital  that  need  be  expended.  Upon  small  holdings  £10  to 
£25  will  often  be  enough. 

The  question  assumes  a  totally  different  phase  when  operations 
are  primarily  limited  to  the  poultry,  and  such  cultivation  as 
there  may  be  is  secondary.  Then  capital  is  required  for  every- 
thing. It  must  be  sufficient  to  provide  money  during  the 
formative  period,  and  for  the  time  before  returns  can  be  secured. 
Where  so  many  promising  enterprises  have  failed  is  that, 
whilst  the  capital  was  perchance  enough  to  establish  and  equip 
the  plant  and  purchase  the  stock,  there  was  no  margin  to 
provide  means  of  living  during  the  first  two  years — that  is, 
until  profits  could  be  realized.  As  this  question  is  of  consider- 
able importance,  and  there  is  a  great  danger  of  misunderstanding 
the  facts  of  the  case,  it  must  be  considered  at  length. 

The  Standard  of  Life. — First  and  foremost  it  is  essential  to 
know  that  the  standard  of  life  is  an  important  factor,  for  upon 
that  will  largely  depend  the  scope  of  operations,  and  whether  the 
profit  obtained  is  satisfactory  or  otherwise.  A  labourer  whose 
wages  are  from  15s.  to  20s.  per  week,  who  does  not  pay  more 
than  2s.  or  3s.  in  weekly  rent  for  house  and  garden,  and  who 
can  make  his  poultry  fit  in  with  other  work,  would  feel  that 
he  was  on  the  highroad  to  fortune  if  he  earned  £20  per  annum 
out  of  his  fowls.  He  and  his  family  would  do  the  work,  there 
would  be  no  false  pride  in  the  selling  of  the  produce,  and  he  would 
not  spend  money  on  ai)pliances  more  than  to  a  very  limited 
amount.  At  the  other  end  of  the  scale  is  the  standard  set  up 
by  many  who  require  a  house  to  live  in  which  will  give  them 
modern  comforts,  probably  with  a  good  garden,  maybe  a  stable 
for  a  pony  or  a  motor-car;  they  have  ideas  about  what  work 
they  can  and  cannot  do,  and  would  be  unwilling  to  sell  their  own 
produce.  Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  in  their  case  expenditure 
is  on  a  higher  plane,  that  cost  of  production  is  greater,  and  that, 
therefore,  the  overturn  must  be  correspondingly  increased.  It 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  many  failures  in  poultry-farming 
have  been  due  to  the  basal  and  living  expenses  being  on  a  scale 
which  could  not  possibly  be  supported  by  the  amount  of  business 
done.  Three  hundred  lajing  hens  might  (I  do  not  say  would) 
maintain  life  in  a  four-roomed  cottage — a  simple  life  all  the  time 
— but  would  be  totally  inadequate  for  an  eight-apartment 
dwelling  with  its  greater  comforts  and  expenses.     In  poultry- 


398  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

farming,  it  must  be  remembered,  as  Ruskin  says,  that  "  the 
true  benefit  is  to  extinguish  a  want — in  living  with  as  few  wants 
as  possible." 

Not  a  Farmer's  Question. — l>elieving,  as  I  do,  that  whilst  the 
great  bulk  of  eggs  and  poidtry  must  ever  be  produced  by 
ordinary  farmers,  and  what  ma}-  be  termed  special  poultry  farms 
are  essential  to  the  progress  of  the  jioultry  industry,  it  may 
be  pointed  out  that  the  operations  which  would  yield  a  satis- 
factory profit  to  the  former  would  spell  failure  to  the  latter. 
The  farmer  has  practically  no  basal  exjienses.  Rent,  taxes, 
labour,  have  to  be  met  whether  he  keeps  a  single  hen  on  his 
place  or  not.  With  him  it  is  simply  a  question  of  a  few  special 
capital  outgoings,  such  as  those  for  stock,  houses,  and  appliances, 
and  for  feeding  the  birds.  The  cost  of  production  is  much  less 
than  can  ever  be  the  case  on  special  plants,  and,  moreover,  the 
fowls  will  help  him  in  his  ordinary  cultivation  by  manuring  the 
ground.  They  will  find,  too,  an  important  part  of  their  food 
at  no  cost  to  him.  Under  these  conditions  the  manurial  value 
of  fowls  is  greater  than  the  rental  value  of  groimd  occupied  by 
them,  and  therefore  rent  should  not  be  charged.  My  contention 
has  ever  been  that,  properly  managed,  every  hen  kept  by  a 
farmer,  whether  he  has  five  or  five  hundred,  will  return  him  a 
living  profit  over  the  food  cost,  varying,  of  course,  with  the  class 
of  bird  kept  and  its  productiveness. 

Basal  Expenditure. — Before  profits  are  realizable  by  the  poultry 
farmer,  what  arc  known  as  establishment  charges  must  be 
met.  The  margin  beyond,  if  any,  is  his  remuneration.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  at  the  outset  to  see  what  these  mean, 
becaiise  by  so  doing  we  shall  be  in  a  better  position  to  appre- 
ciate both  the  scope  of  operations  and  the  amount  of  capital 
calculated  to  secure  a  successful  issue.  At  this  point  it  is 
desirable  to  state  that  a  common  mistake  is  to  charge  rent 
of  dwelling,  and  in  some  cases  household  expenses,  against 
the  poultr\^  farm.  That  ought  never  to  be,  as  these  are  personal 
charges. 

Production  Returns. — Looking  at  the  question  first  from  the 
standpoint  of  production  for  market,  it  is  possible  to  see  what 
scale  of  operations  will  be  necessarJ^  It  has  been  proved  that 
a  hen  kept  for  egg-laying  can  be  made  to  yield  a  gross  profit 
of  5s.  per  annum  over  the  actual  cost  of  food.  But  that  will 
only  be  where  the  average  fecundity  is  satisfactory^ — say  110 
to  120  eggs  per  annum,  where  feeding  is  careful,  and  good 
markets  are  available,  all  of  which  profoundly  affect  the  result. 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY     3S9 

If  wc  take  4r.  as  a  safer  estimate,  then  300  la\nng  hens  must 
be  maintained  to  provide  for  the  £60  establishment  expenses 
alread}^  named.  If  600  hens  are  kept,  there  should  be  a  profit 
on  this  item  of  £00  per  annum,  to  achieve  which  more  land  than 
10  acres  .should  be  .secured.  That  need  not,  however,  influence 
the  result,  as  the  rent  of  any  additional  land  .should  be  more 
than  met  by  the  crops  taken  therefrom.  More  than  600  hens 
would  involve  additional  capital  for  houses,  etc.,  and  for  labour, 
so  that  the  gain  would  not  be  on  the  same  ratio. 

In  some  districts  it  is  found  profitable  to  go  in  for  raising 
table  chickens,  though  that  is  so  for  only  a  few  months  of  the 
year,  whilst  the  establishment  charges  continue  for  the  entire 
twelve  months.  To  meet  the  £60  referred  to  above,  800  chickens 
must  be  bred  and  sold.  AVith  the  space  and  labour  involved 
in  the  sum  named,  without  any  attempt  at  fattening,  2,000 
might  be  raised,  in  which  case  a  profit  to  the  owner  of  £90  per 
annum  might  be  obtained.  Bej^ond  2,000,  more  land,  more 
labour,  more  capital,  would  be  needed,  reducing  pro  rata  the 
additional  gain.  Of  course,  in  many  instances  a  combination 
of  the  two  branches  woidd  give  better  results. 

Production  for  Market  not  Sufficient. — What  has  been  stated 
above  indicates  at  once  why  so  many  ventures  have  failed — 
namely,  because  they  were  on  too  limited  a  scale  to  yield  the 
margin  of  profit  required  by  their  owners  beyond  establishment 
expenses — and  why  farmers  succeed  in  production  for  market 
where  specialist  plants  do  not.  It  also  explains  the  great 
American  plants,  where  thousands  of  lajing  hens  are  kept.  I 
do  not  say  that  we  shall  never  attain  success  in  that  direction, 
but  the  end  is  not  yet  in  sight — not,  at  any  rate,  so  far  as  the 
purely  marketing  trade  is  concerned,  though  we  are  nearer  to 
it  than  was  true  a  few  years  ago. 

It  is  the  farmer  who  makes  money  out  of  egg  and  poultry 
production  for  market,  not  the  specialist,  who  must  gain  his 
rewards  by  increasing  not  so  much  by  quantity  as  by  enhance- 
ment of  returns  for  the  same  number.  Hence  poultry  farmers 
are  those  who  make  their  money  as  breeders,  not  as  food  j)ro- 
ducers,  though  they  should  ever  keep  that  side  in  view,  making 
it  subsidiary,  however,  to  the  other.  Poultry  husbandry  needs 
the  farmer  as  producer,  the  specialist  as  breeder. 

Leakages. — Many  there  are  who  appear  to  imagine  that  success 
is  to  be  achieved  by  the  amount  of  money  expended.  That 
capital  in  one  form  or  another,  for  it  is  not  always  represented 
by  money,  is  a  necessary  fertilizing  element  is  an  undoubted  fact. 


400  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

That  it  can  be  wasted  is  equally  true.  That  many  expend  rela- 
tively large  sums  needlessly  is  equally  correct.  Expensive 
houses,  appliances,  and  foods,  do  not  make  for  success,  as  they 
enhance  the  cost  of  i)roduction,  destroying  all  chance  of  profit. 
Some  of  the  most  successful  poidtrj-men  have  built  up  their 
businesses  on  a  very  small  money  capital,  securing  their  living 
during  the  earlier  stages  in  other  ways. 

It  is  not,  however,  in  the  direction  of  great  expenditure  that 
many  poultrymen  fail  to  attain  the  measure  of  success  that  is 
within  their  grasp,  but  rather  by  neglect  of  small  economies 
which  steadil}'  tap  their  jmssible  profits.  Such  leakages,  small 
in  themselves,  make  a  formidable  total  in  the  aggregate,  and  it 
is  these  which  need  to  be  carefully  watched.  They  can  best 
be  defined  by  the  term  "  waste."  That  brings  no  return,  and 
often  entails  greater  loss  than  is  represented  by  the  immediate 
depletion  of  cash.  Capital  expenditure  is  necessary,  and,  when 
wisely  made,  is  in  itself  an  economy,  but  waste  can  never  be 
economical. 

Houses. — Good  houses  are  a  necessity,  and  it  is  generally 
cheaper  in  the  long-run  to  spend  more  at  the  outset  on  well-made 
erections  which  will  last  a  considerable  time,  than  to  buy  or 
erect  those  flimsy  poultry  houses  which  are  only  too  common. 
A  low-priced  house  is  seldom  cheap,  and  should  be  avoided  by 
the  poultry -keeper.  On  the  other  hand,  too  elaborate  buildings 
are  a  mistake. 

Economics  in  houses  are  not  alone  covered  by  first  cost,  but 
also  by  the  keeping  of  the  buildings  in  good  repair.  Small 
renewals  should  be  made  as  they  are  required,  often  avoiding 
the  need  for  larger  outlay.  "  A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine." 
How  often  do  we  find  that  five  minutes'  labour,  not  given  at  the 
proper  moment,  involves  a  considerable  loss  !  Houses  regidarly 
painted  or  tarred  will  last  for  j^ears;  neglected,  rot  sets  in  due 
to  damp.  Any  loss  which  arises  from  neglect  of  these  reasonable 
precautions  is  absolute  waste,  a  reduction  of  profit,  both  imme- 
diate and  in  the  future. 

Keeping  Birds  too  Long. — No  fowl  shoidd  be  kept  a  day  longer 
than  is  required  or  is  profitable  to  the  owner,  and  yet  this  is  a 
very  common  mistake,  esiicciall}^  among  smaller  poultry-keepers. 
There  is  a  general  feeling  that  it  is  a  pity  to  sell  a  hen  Avhilst 
she  is  laying,  and  thus,  instead  of  disposing  of  her  in  June  or 
July,  when  prices  for  old  birds  are  good,  the  fowls  are  kept. 
When  they  fall  into  moult,  they  at  once  lose  much  of  tlieir  value, 
and  5^et  are  consuming  food  all  the  time,  and  have  tdtimately 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY    401 

to  be  sold  at  low  prices,  whilst  in  the  meantime  they  are  occupy- 
ing space  that  would  be  better  employed  for  the  year -old  birds 
and  for  the  growing  chickens. 

Selling  Old  Hens. — "  It  is  easj^  enough  to  sell  young  chickens, 
but  what  about  the  old  hens  V  is  a  problem  often  presented 
for  solution.  At  first  it  maj^  seem  to  be  a  difficult}',  but  that 
is  not  the  case  in  reality.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  j^ear  there 
is  a  good  demand  for  these  hens,  and  at  fair  prices,  principally 
for  use  by  Jews.  Wherever  a  Hebrew  colony  is  found,  there 
a  trade  can  be  done  in  this  direction;  but  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  birds  have  to  be  killed  by  the  Kosher  butchers, 
and  must  not  be  sent  forward  dead,  as  is  the  case  with  fowls  for 
Gentile  consumption.  In  London  there  is  a  regular  market. 
Various  salesmen  make  a  speciality  of  the  trade,  and  they  are 
on  the  lookout  for  suitable  birds. 

When  the  stock  of  j)oultrj^  is  properly  managed,  every  year 
half  the  laying  hens  should  be  got  rid  of,  their  place  to  be  taken 
later  on  by  the  young  pullets.  The  best  time  to  get  rid  of  them 
is  about  June  or  the  early  part  of  July,  when  the}'  will  have  given 
their  sjiring  quota  of  eggs,  and  before  the  market  is  seriously 
affected  either  by  the  influx  of  game  or  supplies  of  foreign  chickens. 
If  the  business  is  systematized,  the  older  birds  have  not  fallen 
into  the  moult  at  the  time  named,  and  thus,  having  only  passed 
through  one  of  these  annual  castings  of  the  plumage,  they  do 
not  make  by  any  means  bad  eating  if  fed  up  or  crammed  for 
a  fortnight  or  three  weeks.  Unless  they  are  killed  then, 
it  is  more  than  likel}^  that  they  will  have  to  be  kept  three 
months  longer,  when  the  prices  will  be  considerably  lower, 
and  all  the  food  consumed  meanwhile  is  practically  used  to  no 
l)urpose. 

Manure. — One  of  the  directions  in  which  a  great  amount  of 
waste  takes  place  is  in  the  manure  produced  by  poultry.  This 
statement  does  not  apply  to  farms  where  the  birds  are  to  a  large 
extent  at  liberty,  for  in  that  case  the  soil  receives  the  enriching 
influence,  which  is  distributed  in  accordance  with  the  movements 
of  the  birds.  That  this  influence  is  very  considerable  cannot 
be  doubted,  for  there  are  many  cases  where  land  has  been  very 
greatly  improved  as  a  direct  result  of  the  keeping  of  fowls  upon 
it,  and  steps  should  be  taken  to  prevent  any  waste  in  that  manner. 
^Vhere,  however,  the  greatest  amount  of  loss  is  met  with  is  the 
manure  produced  in  the  houses,  and  unless  care  is  taken  very 
valuable  material  is  either  thrown  away  or  so  dealt  with  that 
its  virtue  is  lost.     Upon  a  farm  the  wisest  plan  is  to  scatter 

26 


40: 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


the  manure  as  any  ordinary  fertilizer,  but  to  do  this  it  must 
be  kept  to  the  right  season  of  the  year. 

The  manure  produced  by  poultry  is  greater  than  is  commonly 
supposed.  Observations  made  upon  the  College  Poultry  Farm, 
Theale,  in  1907,  afford  important  data.*  The  following  were 
the  results  arrived  at: 


Production  of  Manure. 


Weight  of 

Annual 

Annual 

Bird. 

Manure  per 

Weight 

Wciglit 

1 

Week. 

(Moist). 

(Dry  Matter). 

lb.     oz. 

lb.       oz. 

lb.    oz.       i 

1.  Wyandotte  cock 

1     13 

94       4 

38     0 

2.  Favcrollo  hen 

1     Hi 

99       9 

36    0 

3.  Growing  chicken  (14  weeks) 

1       2^ 

— 

— 

4.  Fatting  bird           

1     131 

__ 

— . 

5.  Aylesbury  duck 

0     101 

340     14 

70     5 

().  Uoose           

10       1 

523       0 

91     0 

7.  Turkey        

4    n 

212       0 

53     8 

Analysis  revealed  very  considerable  variations  in  the  com- 
position of  manure  produced  by  different  birds  under  different 
conditions.  The  results  as  recorded  in  the  above  test  are  sho\Mi 
in  the  table  on  p.  403. 

Taking  the  qtiantities  of  manurial  constituents  in  the  above 
samples,  and  estimating  their  value  on  the  following  basis — 

Nitrogon        . .  . .      12.s.  per  unit  {i.e.,  1  per  cent,  per  ton). 

Phosphoric  acid      . .       3s.       ,, 
Potash  . .  . .       4s.       „ 

we  arrive  at  the  relative  values  when  in  moist  and  au'-dried 
conditions  respectively: 


Estimated  Values  of  Fresh  Manure  per  Ton. 


Nitrogen. 

Plio.sphoric 
Acid. 

rotash. 

Totals. 

f.      d. 

8.      d.        1 

8.      d. 

8.       d. 

1.  Fowl  at  liberty 

21      0 

3     0     ' 

2     2 

20     2 

2.  Fowl  in  confinement  . . 

17     8 

2     2 

2     0 

21   10 

3.  Fattening  fowl 

27     4 

2   11 

2     2 

32     5 

4.  Buck 

14     7 

3     3     1 

1     7 

19     5 

5.  Goose 

G     4 

0     7 

1     4 

8     4     1 

(i.  Turkey             

12     3 

2    0 

1   11 

IG     2     i 

7.  One-month  cliicken    . . 

20     0 

1     5     1 

1     9 

23     8 

8.  Three-months  chicken 

10  10 

1  1  ! 

1     1 

13    0 

Jourmd  of  the  Board  of  A<jricullure,  March,  1907,  pp.  719-72/ 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY    403 

COMPOSITION  OF  POULTRY  MANURE. 


/- 

Fresh  Sample. 

Air-dried 
Sample. 

1.  Manure  from  birds  at  liberty: 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Moisture    . . 

59-5 

9-9G 

Dry  matter          

40-5 

90-04 

Containing  nitrogen 

1-75 

3-99 

,,            phosphoric  acid  (P2O5)  . . 

1-00 

2-27 

potash  (K2O)      . . 

•54 

1-22 

2.  Manure  from  birds  in  confinement: 

Moisture 

68-3 

9-5 

Dry  matter          

31-7 

90^5 

Containing  nitrogen 

1-47 

4-21 

„           phosphoric  acid  (P2O5)   . . 

•71 

2-04 

potash  (KgO) 

•49 

1-4 

3.  Manure  from  fattening  birds: 

Moisture    . . 

70-3 

15-0 

:             Dry  matter           

29^7 

85-0 

Containing  nitrogen 

2-28 

6^52 

,,             phosphoric  acid  (P2O5).. 

•97 

2^77 

potash  (K2O)      . . 

•55 

1^57 

4.  Manure  from  ducks  at  liberty : 

Moisture 

78-0 

10-0 

Dry  matter           

22-0 

90-0 

Containing  nitrogen 

1-2 

4-90 

„            phosphoric  acid  (P2O5). . 

1-09 

4-46 

potash  (KjO)      . . 

•39 

1-6 

5.  Manure  from  geese  at  liberty : 

Moisture 

82-6 

9^1 

Dry  matter 

17^4 

90^9 

Containing  nitrogen 

•53 

2-8 

„           phosphoric  acid  (P2O5)  . . 

•19 

•97 

potash  (KgO) 

•34 

\'% 

6.  Manure  from  turkeys  at  liberty: 

Moisture 

74-7 

8^0 

Dry  matter           

25-3 

92^0 

Containing  nitrogen 

1-02 

3^7 

,,            phosphoric  acid  (P2O5). . 

•GG 

2-4 

potash  (K2O)      . . 

•47 

\-l 

7.  Manure  from  chickens  one  month  old : 

Moisture 

72-8 

11-0 

Dry  matter           

27^2 

89-0 

Containing  nitrogen    . . 

1^71 

5-5G 

„            phosphoric  acid  (P2O5). . 

•48 

h56 

potash  {K2O)      . . 

•43 

1^4 

8.  Manure  from  chickens  three  months  old : 

Moisture    . . 

77^7 

IM 

Dry  matter          

22-3 

88^9 

Containing  nitrogen 

•9 

3-61 

„            phosphoric  acid  (P2O5).. 

•35 

1.44 

potash  (K2O)      . . 

•28 

M4 

404 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Estimated  Values  of  Air-Dried  Manure  per  Ton. 


Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 
Acid. 

Potash. 

Totals. 

8.       d. 

s.     d. 

s.     d. 

e.      d. 

1.  Fowl  at  liberty 

47  11 

G  10 

4  11 

o'J     8 

2.  Fowl  in  confinement  . . 

50     G 

G     1 

5     7 

G2     2 

3.  Fattening  fowl 

78     3 

8     4 

G     3 

92  10 

4.  Duck 

58  10 

13     5 

G     5 

78     8 

5.  Goose    . . 

33     7 

2  11 

7     2 

43     8 

G.  Turkey             

44     5 

7     2 

G  10 

58     5 

7.  One-month  chicken    . . 

G6     9 

4     8 

5     7 

77    0 

8.  Three-months  chicken 

43    4 

4    4 

4     7 

52    3 

It  will  be  underbtood  that  these  figures  arc  arrived  at  by 
assuming  that  the  unit  value  of  the  constituents  of  poultry 
manure  is  approximately  the  same  as  the  unit  value  of  the  chief 
artificial  fertilizers. 

The  conclusions  arrived  at  were  that  the  annual  value  of 
manure  of  adult  fowls  per  annum  was — 


Fowl 
Duck 
Goose 
Turkey 


Also  that  the  manurial  value  of  a  chicken  during  the  growing 
stage  to  six  months  old  is  2"8d. ;  and  that  in^three  weeks  a  fatten- 
ing fowl  will  produce  5  pounds  8  ounces  of  manure,]  value 
0"95d.,  or  that  408  fowls  in  the  time  named  will  void  a  ton  of 

moist  manure,  value  £1  12s.  5d. 

,/- 
/  Treatment  of  Manure. — In  the  report  referred  to,  it  was  recom- 
mended that  where  manure  as  produced  falls  directly  on  to  the 
ground,  whether  arable  or  pasture,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the 
full  value  is  obtained  if  the  land  is  cropped  in  due  rotation. 
Otherwise  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  it  is  proj^erly  stored  and 
di'ied.  To  leave  it  in  a  heap  in  the  open  is  certain  to  lead  to 
deterioration  of  its  essential  qualities,  both  from  washing  away 
of  soluble  materials  by  rain,  and  by  fermentations  which  set 
free  ammonia  and  other  volatile  nitrogenous  substances.  Fowl 
excreta  forms  a  distinctly  nitrogenous  manure  which  stimulates 
vigorous  growth  of  the  leaves,  stems,  and  roots,  of  plants 
generally,  as  much  as  a  dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of 
ammonia.  It  contains,  however,  in  addition  to  nitrogen,  an 
appreciable  amount  of  phosphates  and  potash  in  a  rapidly 
available  form,  and  on  this  account  is  a  good  complete  manure. 
Its  value  as  an  all-round  fertihzer  for  all  kinds  of  crops  can  be 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY    405 

materially  enhanced  by  mixing  it  with  mineral  superphosphates 
at  the  rate  of  1  part  of  the  latter  to  5  or  6  parts  of  the  fresh^ 
manure. 

Such  as  have  a  demand  for  it  in  a  pure  state  should  spread  it 
thinly  on  trays  in  a  shed,  so  that  it  will  dry  and  yet  retain  its 
elements.  These  trays  can  be  built  in  stacks.  In  this  form 
fowl  manure  is  valuable  for  farmers,  fruit  growers,  and  gardeners, 
alike.  It  is  also  used  for  tanning.  In  the  fattening  districts 
of  Southern  England  there  is  a  demand  for  air-dried  manure  at 
£2  10s.  to  £3  per  ton,  which  fairly  represents  its  value,  as  it 
has  usually  a  moderate  proportion  of  sand  or  earth  mixed  with 
it.  Wherever  feasible,  it  should  be  stored  in  a  covered  shed. 
When  dried,  the  compost  named  above  can  be  used  at  the  rate 
of  6  or  8  hundredweights  per  acre  of  cultivated  or  fruit  land. 
A  useful  plan  is  also  to  mix  2  parts  of  moist  poultry  manure  with 
1  part  of  ordinary  soil  by  weight.  In  this  case  alternate  layers 
should  be  made  of  earth  and  manure,  leaving  the  whole  until 
both  have  dried,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Food. — In  no  item  of  expenditure  is  there  more  actual  waste 
than  food.  For  every  bird  dying  of  starvation  ten  thousand  die 
from  overfeeding.  As  previously  stated,  the  food  supplied 
should  be  supplemental  to,  and  not  in  place  of,  what  the  fowls 
obtain  for  themselves.  Hence  they  should  be  encouraged  to 
forage  as  much  as  jDossible.  [Millions  of  wild  birds  live  on  the 
poidtry-keepers  of  the  United  Kingdom.  \ 

In  buying  food  economy  is  necessarJ^  We  general^  find 
that  farmers  desire  to  charge  more  for  their  small  grain  to 
poultry-keepers  than  better  quality  can  be  bought  from  corn 
merchants.  .-  Corn  and  meal  should  be  purchased  in  sufficient 
quantities  anel  at  the  right  time.j  Moreover,  considerable  saving 
may  be  made,  if  any  grain  is  cheap,  bj'  mixing  with  it  some  other 
food  to  bring  it  to  the  right  ratio;  and  if  grounel  is  available, 
much  in  the  way  of  vegetables  and  roots  can  be  grown  for  the 
poultry. 

Appliances. — The  exercise  of  care  in  connection  with  appli- 
ances frequently  saves  a  great  amount  of  money.  There  can 
be  no  question  that  where  such  appliances  or  machines  have  to 
be  kept  from  one  season  to  another,  anel  during  a  considerable 
part  of  the  year  are  not  used,  there  is  great  danger  of  neglect 
with  regard  to  them.  The  exercise  of  precaution  at  the  proper 
time  prevents  considerable  loss  and  elisappointment  when  they 
are  wanted  for  u.se.  In  the  case  of  incubators,  as  soon  as  the 
hatching  is  over  the  tanks  should  be  emptied  of  water,  carefully 


406  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

dried,  the  egg  drawers  and  water  trays  cleaned,  and  cloths 
washed,  lamps  emptied  of  oil  and  wiped,  and  the  machine  packed 
up.  By  so  doing  it  will  generally  be  ready  for  use  when  again 
needed.  If  the  water  is  allowed  to  stand  in  the  boiler  for  weeks, 
and  the  precautions  named  above  are  not  taken,  probably  it  will 
be  found  out  of  order,  maybe  the  tank  leaking,  when  it  is  needed, 
which  means  considerable  expense  and  loss.  The  same  is  equally 
true  with  regard  to  brooders. 

Feathers. — ^The  greater  portion  of  the  feathers  used  by  the 
trade  in  this  country  are  imported,  and  large  quantities  are 
received  from  Eastern  Europe,  where  a  greater  amount  of  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  requisite  methods  of  preparation,  and  buyers 
can  secure  them  in  greater  bulk.  Feather  merchants  state  that 
foreign  goods  are  more  dependable  and  of  better  quality,  due 
to  systematic  sorting;  that  frequently  native  feathers  are  not 
clean,  and  no  attempt  is  made  to  sterilize  them,  as  a  consequence 
of  which  they  are  often  infested  with  parasites.  All  these  points 
can  be  easily  remedied  if  only  due  attention  is  given  in  the 
direction  of  care  and  preparation.  In  spite  of  the  lessened  value 
of  home  supplies  resultant  from  the  neglect  mentioned  above, 
feathers  form  an  important  item  in  the  receipts  where  poultrj^ 
are  killed  on  a  large  scale.  In  the  fatting  districts  it  is  generally 
reckoned  that  the  feathers  obtained  should  pay  the  cost  of 
labour  for  killing  and  plucking. 

I  When  plucking  takes  place,  the  feathers  should  be  kept  free 
from  blood  and  dirt,  and  be  sorted  as  the  work  proceeds.^  To 
that  end  three  hampers  should  be  provided:  one  for  the  wings 
and  tails,  another  for  the  down  from  breasts  and  thighs,  and  a 
third  for  the  back  and  neck  feathers .""  By  so  doing  they  are 
graded  quite  easily.  (The  most  valuable  are  those  from  the 
breasts  and  thighs ;  but  if  it  is  regarded  as  worth  the  labour,  the 
third  grade  may  be  stripped  and  mixed  with  the  down.'  The 
wings  and  tails  are  of  small  value,  and  frequently  cannot  be 
sold  at  all,  in  which  case  they  are  added  to  the  manure-heapT) 
Upon  larger  establishments  the  better  plan  is  to  put  each  grade 
loosely  into  large  thin  canvas  bags,  forwarding  to  the  merchants 
as  these  are  filled,  as  the  sooner  they  are  sold  the  better.  Where 
the  quantity  is  smaller,  they  should  be  placed  in  canvas  or 
paper  bags,  and  dried  three  or  four  times  in  a  moderate  oven, 
with  the  object  v^f  killing  all  parasites  and  of  drying  out  the 
blood  and  sap.  It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  beat  and  shake  them 
occasionally,  and  to  keep  for  some  time  in  a  warm  place.  Hanging 
the  bags  from  the  roof  of  a  kitchen  is  a  method  to  be  recommended. 
Washing  in  lime-water  is  sometimes  done,  but  the  drying  is 


THE  BUSINEvSS  SIDE  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY     407 

very  tedious.  The  following  are  prices  which  can  generally 
be  obtained:  Wing  and  tail.  Id.  per  pound,  when  they  are 
saleable  at  all;  chicken  and  turkey  down  feathers,  S^d.  to  4d. 
per  pound;  chicken  and  duck  feathers  mixed,  8d.  per  pound; 
duck.  Is.  per  pound;  goose,  2s.  Gd.  per  pound. 

Labour. — ^To  the  great  majority  of  poultry-keepers  the  ques- 
tion of  labour  is  not  of  pressing  importance,  because  whatever 
is  required  is  done  by  themselves  or  their  families.  It  is  per- 
fectly true  that  unless  they  make  suitable  arrangements  and  have 
proper  appliances  there  may  be  a  great  waste  in  their  own  labour, 
but  that  does  not  appear  upon  the  balance-sheet.  One  of  the 
great  benefits  of  good  appliances  is  that  they  minimize  the  work 
of  those  concerned.  Sometimes,  however,  appliances  add  to 
the  labour.  When  we  find  people  taking  up  poultry-keeping 
who  cannot  do  the  work  themselves,  and  have  to  pay  for  labour, 
it  becomes  a  more  serious  question,  and  we  believe  that  many 
failures  have  arisen  almost  entirely  from  this  cause.  What  is 
true  in  poultry-keeping  is  equally  true  in  other  branches.  A  ladj" 
or  gentleman  who  goes  in  for  greenhouses,  or  innt  culture,  or 
dairjdng,  cannot  make  the  same  amount  of  profit  as  one  who 
undertakes  these  branches  herself  or  himself,  and  the  more  this 
fact  is  realized  the  better  it  will  be  for  everj'one  concerned. 
Labour  is  very  expensive,  and  as  a  rule  labourers  will  not,  and 
cannot  be  expected  to,  work  in  the  same  way  as  those  whoso 
payment  depends  entirely  upon  the  success  of  their  efforts. 
Where  labour  is  employed,  then  it  is  most  important  to  keep  it 
fully  and  profitably  engaged,  and  for  that  purpose  the  enterprise 
shoidd  be  large  enough  to  fill  the  time  in  one  direction  or  another. 

Separating  the  Sexes. — Whilst  it  is  true  that  the  majority  of 
breeders  of  exhibition  stock  separate  the  sexes  in  their  chickens 
at  an  early  age,  farmers  and  cottagers  are  very  neglectfid  indeed 
of  this  matter,  and,  as  a  consequence,  trouble  and  loss  naturally 
result.  Some  time  ago  I  was  told  by  a  large  poultry  breeder, 
whose  primary  object  is  egg  production,  that  if  he  could  be  sure 
which  of  the  chickens  were  cockerels,  he  would  wring  their  necks 
so  soon  as  hatched.  The  reason  is  that  as  soon  as  the  sexual 
characteristics  become  aj^parent  the  cockerels  begin  to  fight 
each  other  and  bully  their  sisters,  checking  their  own  growth 
and  arousing  instincts  which  are  better  dormant  for  a  consieler- 
able  time.  Such  methods  are  needless,  for  there  arc  two  ways  in 
which  the  trouble  can  be  avoieled:  First,  by  dividing  the  sexes 
so  soon  as  they  can  be  distinguished.  On  a  farm  this  is  not  at 
all  difficult,  though  it  may  involve  two  houses  instead  of  one. 


408  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

These  should  be  some  distance  apart,  and  into  one  the  cockerels 
can  be  placed,  for  they  will  live  in  unison  if  there  are  no  members 
of  the  fair  sex  to  quarrel  about,  and  they  will  grow  much  more 
rapidly  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  The  second  way 
of  avoiding  the  difficulty  referred  to  is  by  caponizing  all  cockerels 
not  to  be  kept  for  stock  purposes,  when  they  are  nine  or  ten 
weeks  old. 

Keeping  Male  Birds. — ^The  question  is  often  asked  as  to  whether 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  a  male  bird  at  other  periods  than  the 
breeding  season.  It  may  be  explained  that  the  male  has  no 
part  in  production  of  eggs,  as  these  are  formed  in  the  ovary, 
and  the  process  will  begin  at  the  right  time  independently  of 
any  external  influence.  When  fowls  are  kept  simply  for  egg 
production,  it  is  not  necessary  to  keep  any  male  birds.  The  only 
advantage  found  practically  is  that  hens  are  sometimes  quarrel- 
some when  only  with  their  own  sex,  but  a  cock-bird  keeps  them 
in  order,  and  prevents  trouble  arising  in  this  way. 

Accounts. — Complete  accounts  of  their  operations  should  be 
kept  by  all  poultrj^-keepers,  not  merely  for  the  satisfaction  of 
knowing  whether  there  has  been  a  profit  or  loss — though  that 
is  very  desirable — but  also  as  an  inducement  to  economy.  There 
are  several  poiiltry  account-books  sold  which  may  be  used,  or 
a  plain  ruled  book  can  be  made  to  serve  the  purpose.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  year  all  birds  and  appliances  should  be  valued 
and  recorded.  Next,  all  items  of  receipt  and  expenditure  should 
be  set  down  regularly  and  methodicallj^ ;  then  the  number  of 
eggs  laid,  and  how  they  are  disposed  of — whether  consumed,  sold, 
used  for  sitting,  or  for  the  chickens;  and,  finally,  a  hatching 
record,  showing  the  dates  and  number  of  eggs  set,  how  many 
hatched,  and  the  number  reared.  At  the  3-ear  end  there  will 
have  to  be  another  valuation,  and  the  debit  side  will  show  the 
valuation  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  and  expenditure ;  whilst 
the  credit  side  will  give  receipts,  allowance  for  eggs  and  chickens 
consumed,  and  a  final  valuation.  The  balance  between  one  side 
and  the  other  will  determine  the  profit  or  the  loss,  whichever 
has  resulted.  Everj^thing  will  depend  upon  whether  the  accounts 
are  kept  correctly,  and  the  valuation  is  fairly  made.  In  the  case 
of  stock  birds,  this  should  be  what  these  are  fairly  worth  at  that 
time,  not  what  they  may  ultimately  realize.  Also  15  per  cent, 
depreciation  should  be  taken  annually  off  the  cost  of  houses  and 
equipment. 

Library 
N     C     Stare    t  ollegre 


INDEX 


Abnormal  laying,  55 

Accounts,  408 

Adjuncts  to  feeding,  199 

Advertising,  115 

Age  of  breeding  stock,  67,  337,  35S; 
for  killing  ducklings,  322;  for 
perching,  270 

"Agricultural  Geology,"  79,  81,  82 

Air  chamber  in  egg,  204 

Air-space  in  hatching,  220,  225,  230; 
in  houses,  1G3 

Albumin  of  an  egg,  204 

Albuminoid  ratio,  191,  194,  196 

Alimentary  canal,  215 

Allantois,  210,  221 

Allotments,  5,  15,  99.  108,  111 

All-round  prices,  372 

Almy,  J\[r.  F.,  17 

American  bronze  turkey,  48;  duck 
farms,  317;  Pokin  duck,  40;  soft 
roasters,  295 

Amnion,  208 

Analysis  of  foods,  192 

Anatomy  of  the  fowl,  70 

Ancona  fowl,  42 

Animal  food,  197,  199 

"  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domesti- 
cation," 56,  84,  85,  87 

Appliances,  economy  in,  405 

Arable  verms  pasture  land,  16 

Artificial  foods,  189;  heating  not  re- 
quired, 157;  incubation,  231;  selec- 
tion, 36    . 

Artisan  poultry-keepers,  31 

Ash  in  food,  190 

Assimilation  of  food,  193 

Atmospheric  mfiuences,  78,  154 

Auction  sales,  372,  378 

Audenardo,  Belgium,  309 

Austria-Hungary,  3 

Average  productiveness,  38,  107,  355 

Aylesbury  duck  and  ducklings,  46, 299 

Baby  chicks,  30 
Backbone,  70 

Backyard  poultry-keepuig,  31,  136 
Bacteria  in  eggs,  207,   365,   382;  in 
houses,  157 


Bantams,  32,  45 

Barbus  Nains  of  Belgium,  40 

Barley  meal,  305 

Barley,  prices  of,  33 

Basal  expenditure,  398 

Baskets  for  eggs,  126 

Bateson,  Professor  W.,  66 

Beak,  72,  220 

Belgian  carpenter's  flock  of  Malines, 
291;  duck  rearing,  308;  epidemic, 
31,  68,  147,  295;  method,  a,  97 

Belgium,  3,  23,  272 ;  table  poultry  in, 
295 

Bent-iron  fastener,  181 

Bovoro,  near  Audenarde,  310 

Bile,  action  of,  193 

Bills  in  ducks  and  geese,  colour  of,  40 

Biology  of  poultry-keeping,  the,  63 

"  Birdcage  "  methods,  31,  133 

"  Blackhead  "  in  turkeys,  16,  62 

Black  turkey,  48 

Bleaching  the  flesh  and  skin,  80 

Bleeding  turkeys,  345 

Bloom  on  shells,  309 

Body-heat,  74,  191 

Body,  the,  55,  191;  size  of,  39,  58-59 

Boxes  for  chicks,  129;  for  ducklings, 
308;  for  eggs,  125 

Boyle  incubator.  232 

Braekol  fowl,  42 

Bran,  134,  199 

Breakfast  eggs,  368 
j   Breastbone,  71 
1    Breast  muscles,  39 

Breathing  of  fowls,  156 

Breeding,  50-55,  61,  67,  93,  97,  100, 
148 ;  centres,  29 ;  centres  and  private 
breeders,  31;  of  ducks,  299;  farms, 
14,  29,  112,  141;  pens  for  ducks, 
303;  for  size  of  eggs,  358;  stock,  67, 
147,  183;  stock,  range  for,  32; 
stock,  sale  of,  88 

Breeds  and  soil  conditions,  81-82;  of 
poultry,  36,  116 

Bresse  fowl,  43 

Brick  floors,  158 

Brightness  in  eggs,  370 

.Brooder  houses,  249,  264 


409 


410 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


Brooders  and  brooding,  258-261 

Brooders,  shelf,  297 

Broody  hens,  202,  301 

Buckinghamshire,  89,  318 

Buckwheat  meal  for  fattening,  282 

Burnley,  110 

Business  side  of  poultry  husbandry, 

390 
Buttering  eggs,  302 
Buttermilk,  197,  282 

Cages  for  fattening,  274,  275 
Cambridge  Bronze  turkey,  48 
Cambridgeshire  example,  a,  90 
Campino  district  of  Belgium,  23;  fowl, 

42 
Canada,  3 
Canadian  apex   colony   houses,    109; 

brooder  house,  203 
Candling  eggs,  375 
Cantello  incubator,  232 
Capital,  396 

Caponizing,  104,  289,  408 
Carbohydrates,  190 
Cases  for  eggs,  375 
Cellars  for  egg  preservation,  302 
Cement  floors,  158 
Census  of  poultry,  4 
Cerebral  vesicle,  209 
Chalazffi,  204,  206 
Change  of  conditions,  9,  60,  84,  91, 

109,  146,  349 
Changes  induced  by  domestication.  53 
Charcoal,  199 
Cheap  foodstuffs,  32 
Chick  boxes,  129 
Chick,  development  of,  208-10 
Chicken  cholera,  385 
Chicken  feeding,  200,  207 
Chicken,  formation  of  the,  202,  200; 

houses  or  sheds,  254;  production, 

104 
Chickens,  early  treatment  of,  147,  266; 

intensive  rearing,  147 
China,  artificial  incubation  in,  231 
Chinese  methods,  148 
Chivers  and  Sons,  Messrs.  John,  21,  96 
"  City  "  intensive  house,  135 
Classification  of  poultry,  1 
Clay  soil,  82,  83,  254 
Cleanliness,  134,  181,  266 
Climate  and  soil,  27 
Climatic  influences,  76,  79 
Close  breeding,  01 
Cold  brooders,  270 
Cold,  effect   of,  77  ;  storage  of   eggs, 

304 
Collecting  in  Sussex,  272 
College  poultry  farm,  Thoalo,  238,  402 
Colony    brooders,   2.59,    202;    houses, 

168,  290;  methods,  92,  138;  system, 

17,  101 
Coloration  of  fowls,  79 


Colour  of  bills  in  ducks  and  geese,  40; 

of  egg-shells,  38,  370,  3.58;  of  flesh 

and  legs,  nature  of  soil  and,  82;  of 

flesh  and  skin;  39;  of  logs,  39;  of 

])lumage,  39;  of  yolk,  370 
Combination  plants,  114 
Combustion  of  food,  1.55 
Commons  land  and  goose,  324 
Concentration,  evils  of,  16,  95 
Condensation  of  vapour.  156,  175 
Condiments,  use  of,  200 
Constitutional    vigour,    02,    94,    125, 

146,  350 
Consumption  greater  than  production, 

34;  of  eggs  and  poultry,  7.  9,  334. 

340 
Contaminated  air,  effect  of,  103 
Contracts  for  duck  eggs,  301 
Control  of  Hocks,  151 
Cooking  eggs,  308; foods,  191 
Cooling  eggs,  222,  227,  228,  251 
Co-operation  in  marketing,   33,    104. 

306,  372 
Coops,  2.55;   for  ducklings,   310;   for 

goslings,  328;  for  turkeys,  342 
Cornell  University,  63,  262 
Com  feeding,  195 
Corrugated  iron,  154 
Cost  of  production,  10,  40,  96.  398;  of 

chickens,  130;  of  ducklings,  322;  of 

eggs,  357;  of  stock-birds,  120-21 
Cottagers  and  allotment  holders,  .347 
Cramming,  377 
Croad  Langshan  fowl,  45 
Crop,  72;  -bound,  390;  expansion,  269 
Cropping  the  runs,  114,  115,  138 
Crops,  relation  of  poultry  to,  8,  10, 

88,  102 
Cross-breds,  value  of,  120 
Crosses,  48-49,  83,  299 
Curtis,  Miss  Maynie  R.,  350 
Cyphers  brooder,  261;  incubator,  241 

Dairy  farms,  poultry  on,  100 

Damage  to  growing  crops,  109 

Damp,  avoidance  of,  253 

Danish  exports,  11 

Darwin,  Charles,  56,  84,  85,  87 

Davenport,  Professor  Eugene,  54,  55, 

61,64,69,  113,  183 
Day-old  chicks,  28,  30,  116.  126,  129 
Death  in  shell,  62,  185,  232 
De  Beughcm,  Viscomte,  97 
Degeneracy,  60,  235,  204;  in  turkeys, 

338 
Denmark,  3,  5,  29,  33.  359 
Designation  of  eggs,  368 
Determination  of  sex,  180 
Development  of  tj-pes,  52 
Diarrhoea  in  chickens,  207 
Digestion,  00,  190,  193 
Digestive  organs,  72 
Diseases  of  poultry,  379-388 


INDEX 


411 


Disinfectants,  276 

Dislocation  of  tho  neck,  286 

Distribution  of  poultry,  17,  61 

Disuse  of  muscles  and  organs,  384 

Division  of  tho  sexes,  270 

Dominant  characters,  66 

Dorking  fowl,  43 

Double-decker  houses,  135 

Double-yolked  eggs,  205 

Drainage,  152 

Draining  land,  161 

Dressing  fowls.  290;  turkeys,  345 

Dry  feeding,  268 

Dry  mash,' 195,  296 

Dual  poultry-keeping.  24,  26,  108 

Duck  eggs,  sale  of,  107 

Duck  industry,  the.  298-319 

Ducklings,  298-302;  crosses  for,   49; 

feeding,  313;  rearing,  95,  307 
Ducks,  races  of.  46 
Duration  of  male  influence,  187 

Early  sitters.  355-6 

East  Anglia,  89 

East  winds,  influence  of,  223 

Economic  development,  factors  in,  55 

Egg-bound.  392 

Egg  boxes  and  baskets,  125 

Egg  eating.  394 

Egg :  formation  of  the,  202 ;  ovens  in 
Egypt,  231 ;  production,  27,  82,  136, 
205-7,  346;  production,  breeds  for, 
42,  46,  49;  qualities,  38;  supply, 
sources  of,  346;  trade,  7,  9,  89,  367, 
371 

Eggs  for  hatching.  28,  30, 116. 123, 229 

Eggs:  infection  of,  .365;  number  laid, 
38;  size  of,  38.  357 

Egypt,  artificial  incubation  in,  231 

Elephantiasis,  393 

Elimination  of  heat  force,  77 

Embden  goose,  47 

Embryonic  development,  206;  mor- 
tality, 62 

Enclosed  yards,  93 ;  for  ducks,  108,  315 

England,  5 

Epidemic  in  Belgium,  31,  97 

Epidemics,.  380 

Equipment:  of  breeding-plants,  115; 
cost  of,  136;  on  small  holdings,  100 

Establishment  charges,  398 

Eugenics  Congress,  London,  67 

Evaporation  of  body  moisture,  77 ;  of 
eggs,  370 

Excess :  effect  of,  58;  of  food,  influence 
of,  349 

Exercise,  60,  134,  170,  253,  267 

Exhaustion  of  breeds,  51 

Exhibiting,  115 

Experiments  at  Cornell  University,63 ; 

at  Guolph.  175 
Export  trade  in  stock,  123 
Exports  from  Ireland,  5,  6 


Exposure,  effects  of,  179 
Extensive  or  intensive,  14 
External  characters,  37 

"  Factory  "  methods,  28,  142 

Families,  exhaustion  of,  54 

Farmers  and  poultry  husbandry,  13, 

15;  and  trap-nesting,  354 
Farmer's  poultry  house,  165 
Farming  and  poultry  husbandrj',  14, 

28,  88,  90 
Fashion  in  breeds,  116 
Fats :  in  foods.  190. 284 ;  heat  from,  194 
Fattening.  26,  89,  107,  271-3,  280-2; 

of   ducklings,   314;   of  geese,   331; 

of  turkeys,  344 
Favorolle  fowl,  44 
Feather-eatmg,  394 
Feathers,  75,  285,  406;  formation  of, 

219 
Fecundity,  58.  119,  146,  163,  351-3 
Feeding,  188.  195,  266-7.  284;  cost  of, 

103;  of  ducklings,  301,  313;  ducks, 

318;  goslings,  328;  sitting  hens,  228, 

341 ;  turkeys,  343 
Fcodmg  cages  for  sitters,  227;  troughs, 

275 
Fences,  179 
Fertile  and  infertile  eggs,    124,   184, 

207,  222,  230,  362,  370 
Fertilization  of  eggs,  339 
Fewer  geese,  323 
Fibre  in  foods,  190 
Fifth  toe,  37 
Fireloss  brooders,  261 
Fixed  houses,  101,  137 
Flats,  poultry,  136 
Flesh  production,  39,  43,  82-3 
Flocks:  size  of,  163:  unit  of,  138,  141 
Floor-space  per  bird,  136,  142,  145, 164 
Floors  in  houses,  134,  158;  of  raised 

floors,  179 
Food  constituents,  189;  cost  per  hen, 

38;  economy  in,  405;  reserves  and 

sex  of  progeny,    187;  tables,   197; 

troughs,  142 
Forcing  ducklings,  322;  methods,  evil 

effects  of,  147 
Formation  of  the  egg  and  chicken, 

202,  204 
Foster  and  Balfour.  208.  209 
Four-course  rotation.  109 
Four-section  brooder,  265 
Fowl-sick  land,  137 
Fowls:   different  races  of,  42-56;   in 

cattle  sheds,  162 
Foxes,  18,  343 
France,  5,  21,  30,  272;  day-old  chick 

trade    in,    30;    fattening    in,    272; 

vineyards  of,  21 
Frateur,  Professor,  187,  382 
French    cramming     machines,    280; 

turkeys,  333 


412 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


Frosh  air,  155;  in  incubators,  246 
Frosh  oggs,  308 

Fruit  farms,  poultry  on,  17,  96 
Functional  activity,  183,  383 
Function  of  broody  hen,  262 
Funnel  cramming,  279 
Furcula,  71 

Game  bantams,  46;  fowl.  43 

Gametic  constitution  of  the  male,  353 

Gardentr'.i  Chn.riic'e,  85 

Gasoleno-hcatocl  brooders,  263 

Gas  tar,  154 

Gastric  juice,  193 

Gate  fasteners,  181 

Gates,  180 

Goose,  95,  321-31 

General  farms,  347 

Generative  organs,  formation  of,  210 

Genetics,  35,  65 

Geological  conditions,  79 

Germany,  3,  12,  29,  33;  goose  trade. 

331;  imports,  11 
Germinal  development,  206 
Gorminativo  vesicle,  205,  207 
Germs,  weak,  185 
Gina,  Dr.  Corrado,  67 
Gizzard,  73,  193 

Gladstone,  W.  E.,  on  oxygen,  155 
Croslings.     See  Geeso 
Grading  eggs,  368,  375 
Graham,  Professor  W.  R.,  175 
Grain  foods,  195;  price  of,  33 
Grasheido,  Belgium,  24 
Grass  land,  166 
Gravel  as  floor,  158 
Gravelly  or  light  soils,  S3 
Greaves,  321 
Green  food,   135,    199;  for  chickens, 

268;  for  ducks.  .321 
Grill,  199,  285,  321,  .345 
Ground  oats,  281 
Gulf  Stream,  79 
Gutters,  roof,  161 

Half-fatted  chickens,  275 

Halfway  house,  269 

Hamburgh  fowl.  42 

"  Handbook  of  Animal  Phj'sics,"  72 

Hand  cramming,  278 

Hardening  the  chickens,  270 

Hard  food,  195 

Hatching,  40, 124-8, 221-2;  ducks,  .301, 
.307;  goslings,  327;  turkeys,  228,  .341 

Hatching  and  rearing,  94 

Hatching  boxes  and  houses,  223;  regis- 
ter, 229 

Hay  chafi  as  food,  199 

Head,  72 

Head-fold,  209,  210 

Hearson  crammer,  279,  281 ;  incu- 
bator, 233,  241 

Hearson' s  foster  mother,  260 


Heart,  74,  209 

Heat:  effect  of.  upon  body,  77;  force, 

194;  for  hatching,  206;  of  brooders, 

266 
Heating  houses,  157 
Heavy  layers,  54,  352 
Hebrew  festivals,  401 
Hen  oil,  235 

Henrick,  Mr.  J.,  B.Sc,  364 
Hens,  old,  401 
Hertfordshire  plant,  a,  142 
Higglers,  Sussex,  272 
High  prices,  effect  of,  12 
Histon,  Cambs,  21,  96 
Holiday  resorts.  90 
Holland,  3,  29,  33 
Homestead  methods,  91 
Hopper-feeding,  195,  197,  296 
Horse-flesh,  305 
Houdan  fowl,  42 
Houses:  for  colony  system,  102,  103, 

104;  for  incubators,  236;  intensive, 

135.  137;  on  Rancocas  plant,  142; 

rojmirs  of,  400 
Houses    and    housing,    91-101.     141, 

150-3,  161-178;  for  ducks,  302;  for 

geeso,  326;  for  turkeys,  339 
Hovers  in  brooders,  261 
Humidity  of  atmosphere,  156 
Huttogera  and  district,  309-10;  duck, 

46 
Hydro-incubator,  232 

Illustrated  Poultry  Record,  33,  58,  256, 

368 
Immature  stock:  breeding  from,  67; 

turkeys,  337 
Import  duties,  effect  of,  32 
Imports  of  eggs  and  poultry',  7,  11,  333 
Inbreeding,  (il.  67 

Increased  prolificacy  due  to  domesti- 
cation. 53 
Inculiator  capacity,  127 
Incubators  and  their  use.  91.  231-249; 

for  duck  eggs.  299,  301,  314 
Indian    corn,    305;    (Cornish)    game 

fowl,  44;  runner  duck.  46 
Individual  brooders,  258,  259,  265 
Infection  of  eggs,  365 
Inoculation,  38ii 
Insect  and  grub  life,  189 
Insoluble  constituents  in  food,  193 
Instruction  in  poultry-keeping,  34,  98 
Intensification,  lines  of,  30-31 
Intensive   duck-raising.    300;    house, 

143;  methods,  132,  136-7,  142,  146. 

148,  189 
Intensive  Poultry  League,  141 
International  Association  of  Poultry 

Instructors  and  Investigators,  35 
Intestines,  74 
Ireland,  3,  5,  29,  33 
Irish  inquiry,  5 


INDEX 


413 


Isolation  of  purchased  birds,  385 

Italy,  3 

Izal  disinfecting  powder,  270 

Journal  of  the  Board  oj  Agriculture,  389 

Kaffir  com,  200 
Keel,  or  sternum,  71 
Kidneys,  7-4 

Killing  ducks,  322;  fowls,  285;  tur- 
keys, 345 
Klein's  disease,  385 
Kosher  butchers,  401 

Lamp  fumes,  266 

Lancashire,  5 

Landsmoer,  duck  houses  at,  309 

Langshan  fowl,  44 

Laplaigne,  313-14 

Lardner,  Dr.,  72 

Latent  capacity  of  hens,  7,  5(),  350 

Laying  closet,  IGl;  competitions,  59; 

efEect  of  early,  355;  fowl,  type  of,  57 
Leakages,  399 
Leg   bands,   356;   coloration   due   to 

soil,  80 
Leghorn  fowl,  42 
Leg  weakness,  393 
Legs,  39,  71 

Leigh  Nook  poultry  houses,  176 
Lemoine,  M.,  on  food  consumption,  40 
Ligaments  in  eggs,  370 
Light  Brahma,  295 
Light  in  houses,  91,  157;  soil,  82 
Limbs,  formation  of,  216,  219 
Lime-washing,  160 
Lime-water  preservation,  363 
Lincolnshire  Bufis,  121 
Line  breeding,  61 
Lining  a  fowl,  57 
Lippeloo,  Belgium,  97 
Litter,  138,  174,  179,  195 
Little  Compton,  Rhode  Island,  17,  103 
Liver,  74 
Local  traders,  372 
London  example,  a,  134 
Long-range  houses,  164 
Low- lying  land,  152 
Lungs,  74 

McConnelhilr.  Primrose,79, 81, 82, 151 

Maize  feeding  to  geese,  332 

Male    birds,  keeping,   408;   influence 

of,  65,  187,  202,  336,  351;  number 

of  hens  to,  185 
Malmes,  23;  fowl,  44,  97 
Mammoth  incubators,  244,  248 
Manure,  23,  90,  102,   138,   181,  285, 

309,  401,  403-4;  influence  of,  8,  16, 

23,  133,  166,  300 
Marketing,  improved  methods  of,  10, 

366 
Markets  for  chickens,  377,  378 
Markham,  Gorvasse,  162 . 


Marshall,  A.  Mhies,  M.D.,  D.Sc,  207, 

219 
Mashes,  wet  and  dry,  195 
Mass  brooding,  259;  production,  354 
Massing  objectionable,  144,  163,  264 
Maternal  proclivities,  40 
Mating  turkeys,  338 
Meal  foods,  195 
Mean  of  the  race,  37 
Meat  for  turkeys,  343 
Median  Ime,  57 
Medium  soils,  83 
Meech,  I\Ir.  Randolph,  141 
Membrane,  shell,  204;  yolk,  205 
Mendelism,  35,  61,  65,  66 
Mental  impressions,  187 
Merry- thought,  71 
Migration  of  birds,  86 
Milk  chickens,  293;  for  turkeys,  344; 

in  fattenmg,  282 
ililler  brooder,  260 
jMinorca  fowl,  43 

Mixed  feeds,  200;  poultry-keeping,  96 
Moist  conditions  for  hatching,  228 
Moisture  in  incubators,  244,  251;  in 

poultry  houses,  156 
Mortality  m  chickens,  31,  62,  68,  245, 

267,  297 
Moulds  in  eggs,  365 
Moulting,  395 
Munster  Institute  laj^mg  competition, 

355 
Muslin  curtains,  173 
Mutants  (see  Sports),  55 

Natural  drainage,  161 ;  food,  188;  food 
for  ducklings,  314;  methods  of 
hatching  and  roaring,  91,  222; 
selection,  36 

Neck,  dislocation  of  the,  286 

Nest  boxes,  142,  160 

Nests,  160,  186,  227;  for  turkeys,  34  i 

Netherlands,  auction  sales  in  the,  372 

Netted  fronts,  175 

Nettles  as  food,  284;  for  ducks,  321 

Neve  crammer,  279,  280 

New-laid  eggs,  368,  370 

Nitrogenous  matter,  190;  substances 
in  manure,  404 

Non-sitters  heaviest  layers,  40 

Normandy.  21 

Northern  Utility  Poultry  Club,  110 

North  versus  South,  86 

Nostrils,  215 

Number  of  hens  to  male,  185,  339;  of 
poultry  to  acreage,  8,  15,  100 

Nutrient  ratio,  191,  194 

Nutritive  value  of  eggs,  12 

Oats,  prices  of,  33;  sprouted,  134 
(Esophagus,  72 
Oily  secretions,  192 
Ointments,  390 


414 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


Oliver,  Mr.  J.,  270 

Oocytes  in  a  hen,  350 

Opon-front  houses,  91,  142,  150,  174 

Orchards,  poultry  in,  21,  22 

Organs,  formation  of  internal,  210 

Ornamental  races  of  fowls,  45 

Orphans,  the,  209 

Orpington  fowl,  45 

Outside  fattening  cages,  274 ;  runs,  142 

Ovaries,  75,  205,  351 

Overcrowdmg,  91,  109 

Oviduct,  200,  210 

Ovum,  or  yolk,  205 

Oxygon,  155,  103,  230,  240,  349 

Packing   day-old   chicks,    130;    eggs, 

370;  fowls,  288;  of  eggs  for  hatch- 

ing,  125 
"Paddy"  rice,  321 
Paletting  fowls,  285 
Palmer,  Mr.  G.  A.,  58 
Palmer-Phillips,  Mr.  F.,  145 
Pancreatic  juice,  193 
Parasites,  130,  157,  189,  389;  dostruc 

tion  of,  21,  22 
Parental  influences,  05,  351 
Partitions  between  runs,  180 
Pasteur,  Professor  Louis,  380,  385 
Pasture  land,  10 
Paynter  method,  the,  297- 
Pearl,  Dr.  Raymond,  28,  03,  00,  350, 

352,  355 
Peat-moss  litter,  179 
Pedigree    lines     in     breeding,     353; 

strains,  119 
Pekin  ducks,  40,  299 
Pelvic  girdle,  70 
Pens  for  ducklings,  302 
Perches,  142,  100;  for  turkeys,  340 
Period  of  profit,  38 
Periods  of  hatchmg,  341 
Pdits  poussins,  293 
"  Pin-money  "  poultry-keeping,  1,  90 
Pipe  brooders,  317 
Plant  for  day-old  chicks,  127 
Planting  the  land,  104,  114,  115 
Plants,  intensive,  145 
Platforms  for  roosts,  142 
"  Playing  at  shops,"  13 
Plucking  ducks,  322;  poultry,  285-0 
Plymouth  Rock  fowl,  45 
Pocock  egg  box,  370 
Pomeranian  goose,  47 
Portable  poultry-houses,  92,  138,  159, 

105 
Post-mortem  examinations,  387 
Poulardes,  295 
Poidets  de  BruxeUcs,  97,  295 
Poulets  de  lait,  293 
Poultry:  allotments,  109;  an  integral 

part  of  rotation,  92;  census,  1908, 

4,  15;  classification  of,  41;  farms,  7, 

28,  88,  112 


Preservation  of  eggs,  359,  301;  of 
wood,  154 

Prices  for  duck  eggs,  301 ;  for  feathers, 
407;  for  pure-bred  stock,  110;  of 
eggs  for  hatching,  124,  120;  of  milk 
chickens,  294;  of  soft  roasters,  296; 
of  stock  birds,  121,  122 

"  Principles  of  Breeding,"  55,  01 

Production  returns,  398 

Profit  from  fowls,  37,  398;  in  bantams, 
32;  in  duck-raising,  299 

Profits  in  rearing,  100 

Prophylactic  action  of  bran,  134 

Protection  of  fowls,  151 

Pulmonary  circulation,  221 

Punnott,  Professor  R.  C,  00 

Pupils,  131 

Purchasing  fresh  stock,  86 

Pure  breeds  the  basis,  30,  49 

Quality  tost  for  eggs,  308 

"  Races  of  Domestic  Poultry,"  37,  41, 

52,  57-64 
Races  of  geese  and  turkeys,  47 
Rancocas  plant,  the,  139,  141 
Range    breedmg,    32,    125;    brooder 

houses,  259;  for  chickens,  32,  95; 

houses,  170 
Rankin  duck  plant,  317 
Ratios  of  food  values,  194 
Rats,  158,  255 
Reamur,  M.  de,  232 
Rearing  chickens,  91,   90,   107,  253; 

ducklings,  301;  goslings,  327;  tur- 
keys, 342 
Recessive  characters,  00 
Redcap  fowl,  43 
Refrigerating  chambers,  289 
Register  of  hatchmg,  229 
Regularity  of  supply,  89 
Ronaix,  Belgium,  111 
Renewals  of  plant,  400 
' '  Report  on  the  Poultry  Industry  in 

America,"   17 
"  Report  on  the  Poultry  Industry  of 

Belgium,"  32,  97,  295 
"Report  on  the  Poultry  Industry  in 

Holland,"  372 
Research  stations,  382 
Respiratory  organs,  74 
Retailors,  372 

Reversion  to  ancestral  types,  54 
Revolving  table  for  testmg,  375 
Reynolds,  Mr.  W.,  170 
Rhode  Island  Rod  Fowl,  45 
Rhode  Island,  U.S.A.,  17,  19,  102 
Ribs,  70 

Rice,  Professor  J.  E.,  202 
Ripening  poultry,  273 
Roasters,  South  Shore,  104 
Rogers,  Mr.  0.  A.,  03 
Roman  gooso,  47,  325 


INDEX 


415 


Hooting,  154,  164-5 
Roofs,  opening,  145 
Rooks  and  wild  birds,  94 
Roosting-placos  for  hens,  161 
Roost-platforms,  142 
Roosts  for  turkeys,  339,  340 
Rotation  of   crops  and  poultry,    85, 

102,  104 
Rot  in  eggs,  causes  of,  207 
Rouen  duck,  47 
Rough  grazing  lands,  26,  97 
Rouiller  incubator,  232 
Ruddin's  fatting  shod,  Liverpool,  277 
Running  fowls,  24 
Runs,  114,  115,  137-8,  173,  176;  for 

ducklings,  307 
Russia,    3;    breeding-centres    in,    29; 

exports,  11 
Russian  geese,  323 

Sale:  methods  of,  371,  377;  of  duck 

eggs,    107;   of   geese,    325;   of   old 

birds,  401;  of  stock  birds,  28,  116 
Sales  at  Rancocas  plant,  141 
Saliva,  action  of,  193 
Salts  in  food,  190 
Sandy  soil,  82 
Sanitation,  134 
Scaly  legs,  393 
Scapula,  71 
Scotch  C4rey  fowl,  43 
Scotland,  5,  29,  33 
Scratching-shed  houses,  133,  170 
Scratching  space,  142;  system,  267 
"  Sealed  "  eggs,  364 
Sectional  brooders,  265 
tSegraentation.  208 

Selecting  the  breeders,  50, 00, 05, 68, 94 
Selection  of  ducks,  299;  of  eggs  for 

hatching,  125,  358;  of  turkeys,  339 
Selective  influences,  52 
Self-feoding  hoppers,  195 
Semi-intensive     poultry     husbandrv, 

132,  143 
Senses  of  fowls,  75 
Serum  prevention,  385 
Setting  a  hen,  227 
Soxes,  separation  of,  270,  407 
Sex  influences,  186 
Sexual  activity,  67 
Shape  of  eggs,  202,  368 
Shapmg  fowls,  286,  287 
Sheaths,  feather,  220 
Sheds  for  ducks,  302;  for  fattening, 

275; for  turkeys,  340 
Sheds,  fowls  in  cattle,  162 
Shelf  brooders,  297 
Shell-forming  substances,  203 
Shell  membranes,  204 
Shells,  egg,  39,  202,  368 
Shelter,  150,  179,  275;  for  chickens, 

254;  for   goslings,  328;  for  young 

turkeys,  342 
Shooting  the  red,  342 


Shutters,  168,  175 

Shutting  up  at  night,  94 

Sight  of  fowls,  75 

Silicate  of  soda,  303 

Simmonds,  Mr.  P.  L.,  F.L.S.,  203 

Simple  affections,  390 

Singeing  fowls,  288 

Single  tier  fattening  cages,  276 

Sire,  27,  79  82,  189;  intiuonco  of  the, 
353 

Sissons,  Mr.  W.  N.,  18 

Sitters:  early,  356;  places  for,  223 

Six-week  old  chickens,  130 

Size  of  body,  39,  58-9;  of  domesti- 
cated turkeys,  338;  of  eggs,  38,  206, 
357,  368,  369,  376;  of  flocks,  138, 
163,  266;  of  geese,  325 

Skeleton  of  birds,  70 

Skin,  75;  colour  of,  39 

Slopes  of  hills,  151 

Small  holdings,  15,  99 

Soft  crop,  391;  eggs,  202,  206;  food, 
195,  280;  muscle,  283;  roasters,  295 

Softening  the  flesh,  273 

Softness  of  flesh,  391 

Soil,  27,  79-82,  189;  for  ducks,  108; 
for  turkeys,  335;  influence  of,  40, 
81-2,  271,  356;  taint,  264 

Soiling  system,  133 

Soured  skim-milk,  282 

South-Eastern  Agricultural  College, 
156 

South-Eastern  counties,  89,  197 

South  Shore,  Mass.,  U.S.A.,  103 

South  Shore  roasters,  104,  105 

Space  for  turkeys,  334 

Specialist  breeders,  354 

Specialized  poultry  industries,  26 

Special  poultry  farms,  88,  347,  398 

Spinal  column,  70 

Sports,  or  mutants,  55 

Spring  chickens,  294 

Sprouted  oats,  134 

Spur,  72 

Sqtiab  broilers,  293 

Square  coop,  257 

Stable  manure,  ducklings  and,  314 

Standard  of  life,  the,  108,  397 

Standards  and  fertility,  113;  elabora- 
tion of,  64 

Statistics,  4 

Sternum,  70,  71 

Stock  birds,  sale  of,  28,  116;  shijjmont 
of,  28,  116,  123 

Stuck:  class  of,  93,  116;  ducks  and 
water,  800-2;  on  small  holdmgs, 
100;  turkeys,  336 

Strain,  limitations  of,  54 

Strain  versus  breed,  52 

Straw  coop  for  ducklings,  310,  311; 
sheds,  314 

Strength  of  shell  in  eggs,  3G8 

Structure  of  body,  55 

Stubbing  fowls,  288 


416 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


Stubblo  foodiiig,  344 

Suburban  poultry-keeping,  347 

Sunlight,  157,  1G4 

Suspension  of  maternal  instinct,  42 

Sussex  coop,  257;  fowl,  44;  methods, 
107;  packing-peds,  288 

Sweden,  breeding  centres  in,  29;  co- 
operation in,  33 

Swoors,  Herr  P.,  265 

Table  chickens,  crosses  for,  4'J;  fowl, 
type  of,  27,  39,  57;  poultry,  i)roduc- 
tion  of,  82,  271 ;  poultry,  sale  of,  377 

Tables,  food,  197 

Tail-fold,  215 

Tainted  soil,  lU,  182,  317,  334,  383 

Tallow  scrap  cake,  305 

Tank  incubators,  241 

Tarrmg  and  painting,  154 

Taste  and  smell,  75 

Tclogony,  187 

Temperate  zones,  70 

Temperature  of  brooders,  200;  of 
ground,  81;  for  preservation,  302; 
in  incubators,  240 

Tenant-farmer's  house,  153,  169 

Testing  eggs,  230,  231,  372;  produc- 
tiveness, 115;  room  and  table  at 
Koermond,  373;  tables,  240 

Texture  of  flesh,  39 

Theobald,  Professor  F.  V.,  M.A.,  389, 
394 

Thigh  muscles,  39 

Tmted-shelled  eggs,  38,  358 

Toovey,  Mr.  T.  W.,  102,  142,  147 

Toulouse  goose,  47 

Trachea,  75 

Trade  and  Navigation  Returns,  11 

Traders  and  co-operation,  34,  366,  372 

Trap-nesting,  352,  355 

Travelled  eggs,  124 

Trough  feeding,  277 

Troughs  for  shapmg,  286 

Trussmg  fowls,  290 

Turkey  breeding  in  U.S.A.,  10;  poults, 
344 

"Turkey-sick"  land,  334 

Turkeys,  47,  95,  333-344;  hatchhig 
by,  228;  soils  for,  84 

Turning  eggs,  307 

Two-hundred-egg  hens,  120,  348 

Types  of  fowl,  50-7 

Uncultivated  areas,  25 

Undulatmg  country  to  be  preferred, 

152 
Uniformity  of  breeds,  50 
United  States,  3 
Unit  of  flocks,  138,  141;  of  numbers 

in  houses,  93;  of  variability,  50,  54; 
Unity  in  production,  104 
Urban  poultry-keepers,  347 


Use  and  disuse  mfluences  size,  56 
Utility  Poultry  Club,  58,  355 
Utility  standards  for  poultry,  04 
Utricle,  205 

Van  der  Snickt,  the  late  Louis,  86 
Variability  of  poultry,  38,  50-55,  69, 

79,  81,  84 
Vascular  area,  74,  210 
Vegetable  charcoal,  199,  345;  foods, 

199 
Ventilating  shaft,  156 
Ventilation  in  poultry-houses,  91,  155, 

383;  of  brooders,  262;  of  incubator 

houses,  236 
Vertebrte,  70 

Vineyards,  poultry  in,  21,  189 
Vitelline  membrane  ,205 

Wales,  5 

Walsh,  Mr.  P.,  301,  300 

Warington,  Professor,  F.R.S.,  273,  280 

Warmth,  effects  of,  102,  174 

Waste  lands,  utilization  of,  25 

Water,  190,  200;  for  ducks,  108,  300, 

301,  302,  314,  318,  321;  -glass,  363; 

-meadows    and    ducks,   309,    313; 

tanks,  142 
Waterfowl:  on  farms,  95;  soils  for,  84 
Weaned  chickens,  130 
Weber  Brothers  duck  plant,  317 
Weekly  Frceiiian  of  JJublui,  5 
Weight  by  fatteuuig,  increased,  272; 

of  eggs,  202 
Weights  of  female  turkeys,   337;   of 

whiter  fowls,  295 
West  Norwood,  plant  at,  145 
Wet  mashes,  195 
Wheat :  prices  of,  33 ;  small,  200 
Wheeled  houses,  159,  167 
White   comb,   393;   of  an   egg,   204; 

Plymouth  Rock,  290;  turkey,  48 
Wilson,  Hon.  James,  88 
Windbreaks,  179 
Wmds,  152,  154 
Wings,  influence  of  largo,  50 
Whiter  ducks,  298;  egg  pi'oduction, 

355-0;  feedmg,    197-8;  fowls,   103, 

294;  rearmg  of  ducklhigs,  310 
Wire  nottuig,  109,  179 
Woodlands,  152;  for  turkeys,  325,  344 
Worms :  for  ducklings,  314;  mtostinal, 

393 
Wright,  the  late  IVIr.  Lewis,  283 
AVyandotte  fowl,  45 

"  Yarded  "  fowls,  17 

Yards,  179;  for  ducks,  302 

Yearlings  as  breeds,  114 

Yolk,  204,  207,  266,  370;  sac,  220 

Yorkshire,  5 

Yorkshire  breeding-farm,  on  a,  117 


BILLING   AND  SOKS,    LTD.,  PRINTEKS,    OUILDFOKD,    KNULA-NlJ. 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


ML    HEALTHY     POULTRY    J|L 

'mW  ABUNDANCE  of  EGGS  f«l^^' 

secured  by  using 

OVUM 

THORLEY'S    POULTRY    SPICE 


Ovum  is  a.  condiinental  pre- 
paration specially  adapted 
for  Poultry.  The  use  of  Ovum 
also  improves  the  plumage 
and  beautifies  the  feathers, 
while  it  is  ive//  known  that 
all  kinds  of  poultry  pass 
through  the  critical  period 
of  moulting  far  more  easily 
if  Ovum  be  added  to  their 
soft  food.  Ovum  fortifies 
the  constitution,  enables 
birds  to  withstand  sudden 
changes  of  weather,  pro- 
duces abundance  of  eggs. 

Sold  by  Agents  in  all  parts. 


Case  containing  72  packets,  6  '- 
Bags,  cwt.,  30  -  ;  i-cwt.,  16-  ;  ^-cwt.,  8,'- 


/^:  Joseph  TwRLEYhp  London.-^ 
fy  <5pecidl  ^ppGintmiittoHMIheKiNG. 


To  face  last  fagc  of  Index. 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


OUR  WHITE  LEGHORNS  ESTABLISHED  A  RECORD 
AT  HARPER-ADAMS  LAYING  COMPETITION 

They  obtained  a  Silver  Medal.  First-class  Certificate,  and  were  the 

only  Pen  to  have  two  birds  that  laid  270  eggs  each  and  over  in 

the  Competition,  one  laying  270  eggs  and  another  276 

At  the  Laying   Competition   at   Sedlescombe   the  same  strain  obtained  a 
First-class  Certificate  in  each  section. 

The  Fourteen  Birds  in  the  two  Competitions  averaged  nearly  208  eggs  per 
bird,  and  92  per  cent,  of  the  eggs  were  first-grade  eggs" 

An  old  customer  writes  on  Dec.  27th,  1914,  to  say  that  a  White  Wyandotte  pullet, 
purchased  from  us  in  1913,  "laid  280  eggs  in  twelve  months,  has  not  yet  been  broody,  has 
laid  during  moult,  and  to  end  of  November  laid  309  eggs." 

Eggs  for  Sitting,   No.  1  Pens,  7  6  doz. ;    No.  2  Pens,  5-  doz. 
SEND  FOR  CATALOGUE,  FREE  ON  APPLICATION. 

BREEDS :  White  and  Silver  Wyandottes,  Buff  and  Barred  Rocks,  Buff  and  White 
Orpingtons,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  Faverolles,  Houdans,  Anconas,' White  Black  and 
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WORCESTERSHIRE   POULTRY   FARM,    NEAR   BROIVISCROVE. 
BARNARDS   LIMITED,   Norwich,    England. 

MAKERS    OF    HIGH  CLASS    POULTRY    HOUSES. 


Movable    House   and    Run. 

No.   102. 
For  keeping   Laying  Hens  in   captivity  this  is 

an  excellent  House. 

4  ft.  6  in,  long,  3  ft.  6  in.   wide,  perches  and 

nest  boxes 

Run  9  ft.  long,  2  ft.  high. 

Complete        £3  :  8s.  :  6d. 

Carriage  paid. 


The     "IDEAL."      No.    96. 

Designed  by  Harrison  Weir. 

Constructed  on  the  best  lines  and 
of  best  materials. 

4  ft.  6  in.  long,  3  ft.  wide,  with 

Handles 71/6 

Wire  Run  to  same,  6  ft.  long     16/6 
6  ft.  long,  4  ft.  wide,  on  wheels, 

as  illustrated      100/- 

Carriage  paid. 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


AN  EXTRA  EGG  A  WEEK  PER  BIRD 
PAYS  THE  WHOLE  FOOD  BILL. 

Feed  "  Uveco"  poultry  food  and  you  can  get  that  extra 
egg — and  more.  It  stands  to  reason  that  egg-production 
can  only  come  from  feeding  a  natural  health-giving 
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the  experts  and  use 

UVECO 

POULTRY    FOOD 

which  consists  of  nothing  but  pure,  sound,  selected 
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there  is  no  waste. 

Read    the    unsolicited    testimonial   of    one    expert : — 


Wm.    HODGSON,   Poultry    Expert,  Cotherstone,   via   Darlington. 
Dear  Sirs,  ////.  June,    1915. 

I  am  enclosing  a  Photo  of  a  S. C.R.I.  Red   Hen  that  laid  285  eggs  in 
twelve  months  and  five  days. 

She  started  to  lay  in  December,  1913,  but  I  did  not  keep  account  of  her 
eggs  until  January  1st,  1914. 

Mv  experience  as  a  Poultry  Breeder  told  me  I  could  expect  a  good  record 
from  her.  She  was  fed  entirely  on  UVECO  POULTRY  FOOD— January,  28 
eggs  ;  February,  27  ;  March,  28  ;  April,  29  ;  May,  28  ;  June,  27  ;  July,  25  ; 
August,  25  ;  September,  20;  October,  16;  November,  17;  December,  12; 
January,  3.  She  then  went  into  the  moult ;  she  was  not  broody  the  whole  time. 
1  might  say  that  I  have  had  20  years"  experience  with  Poultry,  and  as  a  Poultry 
Food  Specialist,  cannot  speak  too  highly  of  Uveco  Poultry  Food.  I  have  found 
it  to  be  one  of  the  safest  foods  and  the  most  economical. 
Yours  very  truly, 

(Signed)  WM.   HODGSON. 


Get  it  now  from  vour  dealer.    If  vou  would  like  a  free  sample, 
send  a  postcard  giving  gour  own  and  ^our  dealer's  address  to  the 

SOLE    MANUFACTURERS:- 

UVECO  CEREALS,  Ltd.,  se  Brunswick  st.,  LIVERPOOL 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


COMBE  BANK  POULTRY  YARDS 

The  Property  of  ROBERT  L  MONO,  Esq.,  J.P. 
CRYSTAL  PALACE^    1913. 

BUFF  ORPINGTONS  from  these  yards  obtained  the  Highest  Honours 
possible,  viz. :  Six  Pullets  shown  were  awarded  1st  and  CHALLENGE 
CUP,  2nd,  3rd,  4th,  5th,  and  COMMENDED,  in  Breeding  Pens. 
They  were  also  awarded  1st;  also  1st  and  CHALLENGE  CUP  Hens; 
and  last,  but  not  least,  INTERNATIONAL  CHALLENGE  TROPHY  and 
GOLD  MEDAL  for  the  CHAMPION  BUFF  ORPINGTON  in  the  Show. 

LEEDS^    1914. 

BUFF  ORPINGTONS  from  these  yards  again  proved  their  consist- 
ence as  THE  Winning  Strain  ;  Four  Cockerels  shown  were  awarded 
1st  and  CHALLENGE  CUP,  2nd,  3rd,  and  COMMENDED.  In 
Breeding  Pens  they  were  again  awarded  1st,    in    Pullets   4th  and 

RESERVE,  in  Cocks  4th,  also  2nd  and  RESERVE  Hens.     Also 
RICHARDSON  CHALLENGE  TROPHY  for  most  points  in  Open  Classes. 


In     1914      Combe     Bank    Buff    Orpingtons     gained     practically     an 

UNBEATEN    RECORD,    WINNING  FIRSTS:    ROYAL,  TUNBRIDGE 

WELLS,   HAYWARDS  HEATH,   LEEDS,  etc.,  etc. 

These  yards  also  contain  many  Winners  at  the  Leading  Shows  in 
WHITE,  BLUE,  and  BLACK  ORPINGTONS,  SPECKLED  SUSSEX, 
WHITE  AND  SALMON  FAVEROLLES,  SILVER  DUCKLING,  and 
BLACK  RED  YOKOHAMAS.  LIGHT  BRAHMA  and  BARBUS 
D'UCCLE  BANTAMS,    PADMANS    (UTILITY)   WHITE    LEGHORNS. 


Exhibition    Birds  and  carefully-mated   Breeding  Trios  from   all  the 
Varieties  kept  always  for  Sale  at  Reasonable  Prices. 


EGGS    '    £2:2:0  per  Dozen  in  Season. 

Apply  for  Illustrated  Booklet  to 

M.   DALTON   COWAP, 

Estate   Office,    Combe   Banf<:,    near  Sevenoa/<s. 

4 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


EGGS      IMSURED 

We  pay  for  eggs  broken  in  transit  in  accordance  with  guarantee  given  with 
each  of  our  Patent  Egg  Boxes. 


'CUSHVOH 
EGG  BOX 


LIGHT 
Made  of  3-ply  wood. 

Stnut  Leather  Board 

Divisions  fitted  with 

Felt  Pads  or 

Cushions. 

PRICE  LIST 
post  free 


SAFE 

Metal-bound  Corners. 


CHEAP 

KNOWN  AND 

USED 

THROUGHOUT 

THE 

WORLD. 


>:(?( 


if 


r 


r 


FA 


O}. 


INCSCP0S3 
LC4C0IJ 


The  "THERMOS"  FOSTER  MOTHER 

The  "THERMOS"  Lampless  Foster  Mother  maintains    the  warm  temperature  for 
rearing  chickens,  independently  of  any  change  of  atmosphere,  for  24  hours  or  more. 

ENTIRELY    NEW   METHOD    OF   HEATING   WITHOUf   A   LAMP. 

A  cylinder  of  stout  metal  is  charged  with  a  substance  in  green  crystals  which,  when 
once  heated,  gradually  radiates  heat  as  from  a  living  body  and  cannot  be  quickly  cooled. 

NO  OTHER  METHOD   OF   HEATING  IS   EQUAL   TO   THIS. 

The  advantage  over  any  form  of  lamp  or  hot  water  tanks  must  be  appreciated  at  once. 


NO  LAMP.       NO  RISK. 

NO  EXPENSE. 
NO  FAILURES. 
NO  TROUBLE. 

NO  WASTE. 


Catalogue  of  'Poultry  yj ppliances,   post  free. 

DAIRY   OUTFIT   CO.,  Ltd.,  King's   Cross,  LONDON,    N. 

5 


advertisp:mexts 


THE  WORLD^S  PRIZES  STILL 
CONVERGE  TO  CATFORTH 


If  anything  in  this  world  is  provable,  surely  it  must  be  plain  to  you 
that  my  successes  in  the  Great  Laying  Competitions  of  the  World 
unmistakably  prove  the  undoubted  leadership  of  my  laying  strains ; 
not  only  that,  but  the  records  of  my  birds  emphasize  their  stamina  in 
combating  the  varied  climatic  conditions. 

HERE  ARE  MY  RECENT  SUCCESSES 

1st    Prize,    1913— ist   and   3rd    Prizes,    iQM— 
North  American  International. 

1st    Prize,    1913 — ist   and   3rd    Prizes,    1914— 
Missouri  State,  U.S.A. 

2nd  Prize,  British  Columbia,  1914. 

1st    Prize,    1913— 2nd  and  3rd   Prizes,    1914— 
Stores,  Conn.,  U.S.A. 

and   Prize,   Sedlescombe,   England,   U.P.C., 
1914. 

2nd  and  3rd  Prizes,  Burnley,  England,  1914. 

If   you    want   to  revitalize   your   stock,    Tom    Barron's    strain    will 
help  you  to  add  a  permanent  value  to  every  fowl  you  raise. 

Send  for  my  Current  List  and  Catalogue. 

I   EXPORT   TO   EVERY    POINT   OF   THE  WORLD'S    COMPASS. 


TOM  BARRON, 

CATFORTH,    Near    PRESTON,     ENGLAND. 

6 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


By  Royal   Warrant         '^^$^^$        ^"  ^•^-    "'^    ^"'^• 


"  In  IZAL  they  had  put  in  their  hands  a  worthy  and  formidable 
weapon  for  batthng  against  the  bacillus." — 

Sir  Jas.   Crichton-Browne,   F.R.S. 

Against  Influenza. — Mr.  T.  W.  Toovey  writes  :  "  Prevention  is  better  than  cure, 
so  now  we  give  IZAL  daily  to  all  the  birds.  One  liquid  ounce  of  IZAL  is 
added  to  each  8  gallons  of  liquid  used  for  mixing  the  soft  food.  The  result 
has  been  so  beneficial  that  it  should  be  known." 

Against  "  The  Gapes." — Mr.  A.  Dinsley  writes  :  "  IZAL  is  the  best  dis- 
infectant and  the  only  one  which  I  have  found  capable  of  penetrating  the 
chitinous  coating  of  gape-worm  ova." 


IZAL     Disinfecting     Powder 
Dusted  among  the  feathers  instantly  rids  the  birds  of  all  pests. 


IZAL   Fluid,   1  3   pint,  2/-  quart,  6  -  gallon. 
IZAL  Powder  -  5/-  per  50-lb.  cask. 

Sent    carriage    paid    on    receipt    of  remittance. 

ASK  FOR  FREE  COPY  OF  "HEALTHY  POULTRY. 


NEWTON     CHAMBERS     &    CO.,     LTD., 
THORNCLIFFE,    NEAR    SHEFFIELD. 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


MARK     YOUR 

HENS 

CLEARLY 


(HILLS  COLOURED  EXPANDING/ 
BANDS 

\   DO  NOT  INJURE  LECSj 
DO  NOT   FALL  OFF 
CLEAN  BRIGHT  SURFACE. 
SAMPLE 
FREE. 


HILL  S  COLOURED  EXPANDING 
BANDS  AND  CODE. 


Finest  Spring  Quality. 
Bright  Distinct  Colours. 


Best  English  Make. 
Really  Self=Closing 

Sample  Set  of  4  Sizes  and  10  Colours.     Post  Free,  6d. 

HILL'S    RUBBER    CO.,    LTD., 

P.O.  Dept.,  Market  Place,  Reading. 


AT  ALL   BOOKSELLERS. 

UTILITY 
POULTRY   KEEPING, 

ELLEN   C.   DAVIES, 

CONl  RIliUTOR  -Id  "  THE  I'OUI.TKY  WOKI.D,"  '    I'OfLTRV,' 
"  AGKICUl.TL'RAL   OAZEn  E,"  ETC- 

Illustrated.     2s.  6d.  net. 


"It  fills  an  almost  entirely  unoccupieil  place  in 
English  poultry  liteniture.  Books  there  are  in  plenty, 
but  tho'ie  that  deal  fully  and  sensibly  with  the  useful 
side  of  the  subject  are  few  and  far  between  ;  and  for  her 
concise  and  eminently  practical  treatment  of  the  matter 
in  its  .several  branches  Miss  Davies  is  to  be  congratu- 
l.ited."-y^V«//rf«v«'/./V. 

"  Here  we  have  a  book  of  a  useful  type  which  em- 
bodies a  great  amount  of  eusful  information  put  in  a 
form  that  can  be  easily  understood.  It  is  marked  by 
commonsense  treatment  of  the  subject."— y<!K>«a/ c/ 
i/ie  Sationai  Poultry  Organisation  Society. 

"A  thoroughly  good  manual.  Every  contingency 
of  the  life  of  poultry,  from  the  incubator  to  the  table, 
is  fully  dealt  \\\\\\."—Yorkshnc  Post. 

LONDON  :    EDWARD  ARNOLD. 


CYPHERS 

STANDARD 

INCUBATORS 


''BUSINESS  INCUBATOR  OF  THE  AGE." 

The  Ii:cubator/or  those  -who  aie  in  the  Poultry  Busiucss 

for  rrolit. 

The  Cyphers  Free  Bulletin  Service  will  interest  you. 

Bulletin  No.   2:— "Dry  Feeding  by  the  Hopper 

Method."     There  .Tre  2^  others,  ec|iKi!ly  interesting, 
and    all    absolutely     FREE    to    Cyphers  Company 

CYPHERS  INCUBATOR  COMPANY, 

Balfour  House, 
119  125,  Finsbury  Pavement  LONDON,  E.G. 


P 

VL     and  MICE 

JIL    ^^  destroyed  by 

DANYSZ   VIRUS. 


Harmless  to  Human  Beings,  Domestic  and  other 
Animals,  Poultry,  etc. 


S[  ecial    Prices  to  larger  users  : 

Tubes,  12  -  per  dozen. 

Quart  bottles  (making  5  lbs.  bait). 

6  -  each. 

Post   Free.  Cash  with  Order. 


DANYSZ  VIRUS,   Ltd., 

j    52,  Leadenhall  Street,  London,  E.C. 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


Egg  Boxes 

THE  WORLD'S  STANDARD  EGG  BOXES 

/Is'tTcd  by  the  leading  Egg  Merchants  and 
Collecting  Depots. 

The  following  letters  speak  for  themselves  : 

Arisaig  and  District  Agricultural  Society,  Ltd. 
"  The  boxes  received  from  you  are  simply  splendid  ; 
they  are  still,  after  two  years'  use,  as  good  as  new, 
and  only  once  were  there  any  chipped  eggs  in  a 
consignment,  and  that  was  owing  to  some  carelessness 
on  the  railway.     They  are  most  excellent  value. 

John  Jones,  Esq.,  Llwynmawr,  Bala,  N.  Wales: 
"  I  am  well  pleased  with  the  egg  boxes  I  had  from 
you.  They  answer  the  same  purpose  as  boxes  that 
cost  more  than  double.  I  have  not  seen  anything 
equal  to  your  boxes  for  carrying  eggs  by  rail."    , 

If  you  arc  a  packer  of  eggs  in  any  qNantity  and  ivish  to 

eliminate  the  cost  of  BROKEN   EGGS,    urife  noiv  for 

full  particulars  and  prices  to 

STREET    &    DISTRICT    COLLECTING    DEPOT,   LTD. 

STREET  FARM,  STREET,  S.O.,  SOMERSET. 


SUDAN     DARI 

AS    A    POULTRY    FOOD    AND    FOR    STOCK 
OF  ALL  CLASSES. 

The  special  atiention  of  poultry  keepers  is  called  to  the  value  of  Dari  as  poultry 
food  not,  as  hitherto,  alone  for  chichens,hnt  also  for  adult  stock  inclusive  of  laying  hens 

HIGH  PERCENTAGE  OF  NUTRITIVE  ELEMENTS. 

Analysis  has  shown  that  Dari  has  a  much  higher  percentage  of 
nutritive  elements  than  Maize,  and  contains  less  fat.  Further,  it 
is  more    palatable  and  digestible. 

A  CHEAP  FOOD. 

At  the  same  prices  per  quarter  or  ton  as  Maize,  it  would  be  found 
that  Dari  is  a  cheaper  food. 

SUPPLIES    FROM   THE    SUDAN. 

A  new  source  of  supply  is  the  Sudan,  where  it  forms  the  staple 
human  food.  Poultry  keepers  can  obtain  supplies  through  their 
regular  Corn  Merchants. 


ADVERTISEMEXTS 


USEFUL    COOKERY    BOOKS. 

KING  EDWARD'S  COOKERY  BOOK. 

By  Florence  A.  George,  First-Class  Diploma  National  Training 
School  of  Cookery,  London  ;  Mistress  of  Cookery  at  King  Edward's 
High  School  for  Girls,  Birmingham.      340  pages.      Cloth,  3s.  6d. 

VEGETARIAN    COOKERY.       By   Florence 
A.  George.     Cloth,  3s.  6d. 

COMMON- SENSE    COOKERY,      for 

ENGLISH  HOUSEHOLDS.  Based  upon  Modern  English 
and  Contmental  Principles,  with  Twenty  Menus  worked  out  in  detail. 
By  A.  Kenney  Herbert  ("  Wyvern").  Illustrated.  Cloth,  6s. 
net  (by  post,  6s.  4d.). 

"These  menus,  twenty  in  number,  adapted  to  the  various  seasons  of  the  year,  and 
worked  out  in  detail,  are  extremely  valuable,  and  are  particularly  deserving  of  theattention 
of  all  who  are  in  the  habit  of  Riving  dinners  which  are  intended  to  be  really  repasts  and  not 
simply  culinary  displays." — World. 

FIFTY  DINNERS.      By  a.  Kenney  Herbert.    2s.6d. 

"  Ought  to  be  very  useful  to  distracted  housewives  in  search  of  dinners  that  shall  be  tempting 
without  being  ruinous.  It  is  full  of  ideas,  and  the  very  appearance  of  such  a  book  says  a  good 
deal  for  the  advancement  in  culinary  art  on  which  we  pride  ourselves  so  much  of  late." — Queen. 

FI  FT Y  BREAKFASTS.      By  a  .Kenney  Herbert. 
2s.  6d. 

"A  little  book  by  'Wyvern,'  containing  designs  and  instructions  for  the  preparation 
of  fifty  breakfasts,  the  very  perusal  of  which  gives  one  an  appetite.  Men  such  as  'Wyvern,' 
who  try  to  give  an  artistic  charm  to  English  cookery,  deserves  a  peerage  or  Westminster 

Ahhey."— Liverpool  Daily  Post. 

FIFTY  LUNCHEONS.      By  a.  Kenney  Herbert. 
2s.  6d. 

"  Like  all  '  Wyvern 's  '  cookery  books,  this  new  work  is  excellently  arranged.  The  noj 
too  lengthy  menus  consist  chiefly  of  light  and  dainty  dishes  especially  suitable  for  smal 
parties.  All  directions  are  clear  and  concise,  and  among  many  new  recipes,  particular 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  cooking  of  vegetables  and  eggs." 

LONDON:       EDWARD     ARNOLD. 
lO 


ADVPJRTISEMEXTS 


MR.    REGINALD    FARRER'S    BOOKS    ON    GARDENING. 

MY    ROCK-GARDEN 

Fourth  Impression.  Large  Crown  8vo.  With  Illustrations.  7s.  6d.  net. 

"The  book  is  the  best  treatise  on  the  cultivation  of  choice  alpine  plants  that  we  have  seen  since 
Mr.  \V.  Robinson  set  the  fashion  nearly  forty  years  ag'o." — The  f  ield. 

"The  book  will  delig'ht  the  'born  gardener.'  It  is  packed  with  first-hand  observations  from 
cover  to  cover,  and  every  page  of  it  is  interesting." — Pall  Mall  Gazette. 

ALPINES    AND    BOG-PLANTS 

With  Illustrations.  Large  Crown  8vo.  7s.  6d.  net. 

"  There  is  no  need  to  recommend  a  new  work  b}'  Mr.  Farrer  to  those  of  our  readers  who  enjoyed 
a  former  book  about  his  rock-garden.  They  will  be  looking  out  for  fresh  pleasure  in  'Alpines  and 
Bog-Plants,'  and  they  will  find  that  one  of  our  mo>t  attractive  writers  on  gardening  has  not  yet 
exhausted  his  subject.  He  combines  the  power  of  giving  charming  descriptions  with  the  art  of 
imparting  practical  hints." — Sfectator. 

IN    A    YORKSHIRE    GARDEN 

With  Illustrations.  Cloth.  10s.  6d.  net. 

"  All  Mr.  Farrer's  books  on  hardy  plants,  rock  gardens,  etc.,  have  been  full  of  interesting 
instruction,  but  in  our  opinion  his  last  work  on  his  own  garden  in  Yorkshire  is  his  best  and  will  be 
read  by  all  hardy-platit  growers  more  greedily  than  any  of  his  other  books,  interesting  as  they  are. 
All  who  possess  a  garden  of  moderate  or  large  size  should  read  this  very  delightful  Book,  which  is 
well  indexed." — Journal  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society. 

OWEN    JONES'S    BOOKS. 

THE    SPORT    OF    SHOOTING 

By    OWEN    JONES 

With  Illustrations.  One  Volume.  10s.  6d.  net. 

''What  Mr.  Jones  does  not  know  about  'Game'  and  'Shooting'  is,  in  the  vernacular,  not  worth 
knowing.     'The  Sport  of  Shooting'  is  a  book  which  every  shooting  man  should  study." — World. 

A  GAMEKEEPER'S   NOTE-BOOK 

By    OWEN    JONES    and    MARCUS    WOODWARD 

With  Photogravure  Illustrations.       7s.  6d.   net, 

"  We  commend  it  for  the  spirit  that  informs  it,  the  truthfulness  of  its  statements  and  conclusions, 
the  style  in  which  it  is  written,  and  the  many  excellent  anecdotes  which  are  told  in  it." — Evening 
Staridard. 

TEN  YEARS  OF  GAMEKEEPING 

By    OWEN    JONES 
Fully  Illustrated.  10s.  6d.  net.  Third  Impression. 

"This  is  a  book  for  all  sportsmen,  for  all  who  take  an  interest  in  sport,  and  for  all  who  love  the 
English  woodlands.  This  book  at  once  takes  its  place  as  a  standard  work,  and  it;  freshness  will 
endure  as  surely  as  spring  comes  to  the  woods  that  inspired  it." — Evening  Standard. 

"A  volume  that  will  be  found  absorbing  by  all  who  are  interested  in  open-air  life." — Daily 
Telegraph. 

LONDON  :      EDWARD     ARNOLD. 
II 


advkrtisemp:xts 


MR.     EDWARD    ARNOLD'S    PUBLICATIONS. 

THE     PRINCIPLES    OF     LANDED    ESTATE 

MANAGEMENT.  By  Henry  Herbert  Smith,  Fellow  of  the 
Institution  of  Surveyors,  and  Agent  to  the  Marquess  of  Lansdowne,  K.G.,  the 
Earl  of  Crewe,  Major-General  the  Lord  Methuen,  etc.  With  Plans  and 
Illustrations.      16s. 

<;  I  a,i.iar.i -'-In  this  most  useful  and  interestin?  boik  Mr.  Smith  has  compressed  into  little  more  than  300 
na-es  as  n.uch  practical  information  and  sound  advice  as  many  writers  would  have  spread  over  three  volumes  V\  e  can 
confidently  recommend  the  volume  to  all  persons  either  directly  or  indirectly  connected  with  the  important  subject 
of  which  it  treats." 

ENGLISH   ESTATE  FORESTRY.    By  a  c  Forbes. 

Chief  Forestry  Inspector  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  Ireland. 
With  Illustrations.      1  2s.  6d.  net. 

7-/.,,  ,i/.^„/k^  PoU  — "  -Air.  Forbes  is  a  specialist,  but  a  specialist  who  knows  well  ho«'  to  iiiake  his  subject 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  of  BRITISH  FORESTRY 

By  A.  C.  Forbes.     With  Illustrations.     10s.  6d.  net. 

MODERN  METHODS  OF  WATER  PURIFICA- 

TION.  By  John  Don,  A.M.Inst.Mech.E.,  and  John  Chisholm. 
Illustrated.     Demy  8vo.,  1  5s.  net. 

THE  GEOLOGY  OF  WATER  SUPPLY.    By  h  b 

WoODW.ARD,  F.R.S.     Illustrated.     Crown  8vo.,  7s.  6d.  net. 

CHEMISTRY  for  AGRICULTURAL  STUDENTS 

By  T.  S.  Dymond,  of  the  County  Technical  Laboratories,  Chelmsford.     2s. 6d. 

WOOD.  A  Manual  of  the  Natural  History  and  Industrial 
Applications  of  the  Timbers  of  Commerce.  By  G.  S.  Boulger, 
F  L.S.,  F.G.S.,  A.S.I.,  Professor  of  Botany  and  Lecturer  on  Forestry  in  the 
City  of  London  College,  and  formerly  m  the  Royal  Agricultural  College. 
Profusely  Illustrated.      1 2s.  6d.  net. 

THE  HORSE  :  its  Origin  and  Development  combined  with 
Stable  Practice.    By  Col  R.F.Meysey-Thompson.    Illustrated.   15s.net. 

KL-rc-rec  — "  All  who  love  horses  will  find  much  of  absorbing  interest  in  'The  Horse,'  for  the  l)Ook  contains  some 
of  th-  life  e.xperiences  of  one  of  the  greatest  e.vperts  on  a  subject  which  appeals  strongly  to  most  of  us.  1  he  author 
"mpans  many  secrets  of  training,  and  gives  sound  and  practical  advice  all  the  time.  Especially  may  the  book  be 
commended  to  the  notice  of  horse  show  jud-es. 

THE  HORSE:  Ailments  and  Accidents.  By  Fr.ank  Townend 
Barton,  M.R.C.V.S.     Foolscap  8vo.,  cloth,  2s.  6d.  net. 


; 


LONDON:       EDWARD    ARNOLD. 
12 


"r, 


